ISAP Module 2 – Feedforward
1. Describe the major functions of the skeletal system.
a) What are the five major function of the skeletal system?
o Protection
o Storage
o Blood cell production
o Movement Support
b) Describe the various components of the skeletal system including cartilage, bone and tendons and ligaments
o Tendons attach muscle to bone
o ligaments connect bone to bone.
o Cartilage is soft and cushions the joint
o Bones are rigid structure
c) Explain the structure of various types of cartilage in terms of matrix, growth, cell types.
Hyaline, cell type is chondrocytes – gelatinous, glossy cartilage with evenly distributed collagen fibres. Found
wherever support and flexibility are needed e.g. rib cage and bronchi.
Fibrous, fibroblasts is cell type – more collagen bundles than hyaline. Slightly compressible and very tough.
Found where there is a lot of pressure such as knee, in the jaw and intervertebral discs.
Elastic Cartilage, cell type is chondrocytes – matrix collagen similar to hyaline but has elastic fibres added,
somewhat flexible and used when rigidity is needs such as external ear, epiglottis auditory tubes.
Cartilage growth: Appositional growth – chondroblasts secrete new matrix along the surfaces and this causes
the cartilage to expand and widen. Interstitial growth – Chondrocytes secrete new matrix within the
cartilage, and this causes it to grow in length.
2. Describe the formation, growth and maintenance of bone.
a) What are the components of bone tissue (ie the matrix) and how do they relate to its properties?
o Organic – 35% of bone tissue is made up of cells, collagen and glycoproteins. Produced by living things and
contain carbon that is burnt to give off CO2
o Inorganic – Made up of hydroxyapatites, Ca2 and salts
b) Name the three main bone cell types and state their function
o Osteoblasts – Bone building cells, lay down bone matrix.
o Osteoclasts – Bone destroying and reabsorbing cells, remodel bone matrix.
o Osteocytes – maintain bone matrix
c) What is the role of collagen in bone tissue?
To keep bones elasticity and flexibility
d) Distinguish between compact and spongy (cancellous) bone?
Compact bone has a very organised intercellular matrix. Compact bone is organised into functional units called an
osteon (haversian system) where layers of bone are wrapped around a central canal containing a blood vessel.
Spongy Bone has less bone matrix and more space due to trabeculae.
e) Classify bones according to their shape, give examples.
o Long Bones – longer than wide e.g. humerus, femur, radius, ulna, phalanges fibula and tibia – upper and
lower limbs
o Short Bones – nearly equal in length and width e.g., carpals, tarsals, sesamoid bones – wrist and foot
o Flat Bones – much wider than thick e.g., cranial, ribs, sternum, scapula
o Irregular Bones – doesn’t fit into any of the above e.g., vertebrae, some skull bones, hip bones, facial bone.
f) Describe the general structure of a long bone.
- Long Diaphysis with a proximal and distal Epiphysis. Bone is longer than it is wide and is made of compact bone
with an inner medullary cavity containing bone marrow.
g) Describe in detail the arrangement of bone tissue in compact bone.
Outer bone is called periosteum, it contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts that are responsible for bone remodelling &
appositional growth.
Next layer is the lamellae (extra cellular matrix of bone) Circumferential lamellae, wraps around entire bone.
Next part is osteons, more than one makes compact bone and is how compact bone is organised.
Centre of each osteon is a canal called central canal which is where blood vessels and nerves run through. Dots
within lamellae are osteocytes (bone cell)
These osteocytes sit within a lacunae just as empty space that holds osteocyte. Endosteum covers the medulla cavity
and spongy bone.
h) What is the embryonic precursor tissue and cell of bone? Mesenchyme
i) How does bone ossify and how is this different for flat and long bones?
o Intramembranous – mainly flat bones, bone forms directly from mesenchyme (embryological CT)
Endochondral – mainly long bones – bone forms from mesenchyme producing a hyaline cartilage model first
which is replaced by bone tissue.
*some bones ossify via both methods such as clavicle and scapula
j) Distinguish epiphyseal lines and plates on an X-ray and explain what the presence of each will tell about the
growth of bone.
k) Describe the factors that affect bone growth, including nutrition, hormones and mechanical stress.
o Heredity – from parents passed down
o Nutrition – raw materials such as calcium, phosphorus and protein become part of the bone matrix itself.
Vitamin D ensures efficient absorption of calcium and phosphorus by small intestine, also stops rickets.
o Hormones – growth hormone increases the rate of chondrocytes and osteoblasts and increases the rate of
protein synthases.
-Thyroxine T4 increases the rate of protein synthesis, increasing energy production from all food.
-Insulin, increases energy production from glucose.
-Parathyroid hormone, increases reabsorption of calcium from bones to blood raising calcium levels.
-Calcitonin, lowers blood calcium level.
-Estrogen and testosterone, stops growth of long bones by promoting the closure of the epiphyses.
-Exercise, without exercise bones will lose calcium faster than it is replaced. Strenuous exercise remodels
bones ensuring they become thicker and stronger as more matrix is deposited. Not exercising leads to loss of
matrix (thinner and more fragile)
-Osteocalcin regulates bone formation.
3. Identify, name and classify bones of the skeleton and use correct anatomical terminology to describe bony
features.
a) What are the components of the axial and appendicular skeleton?
Axial – makes up our central axis and consists of the skull, vertebrae, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular – consists of limbs, shoulder girdle: clavicle, lunate, triquetrum ect, pelvic girdle: ilium,
ischium, pubis, thigh, femur etc
b) Name and describe the various terminology given to bony features and landmarks.
Foramen - notch that is bridged by a ligament or bone.
Ridge - a small linear elevation that is often roughened.
Crest - narrow linear elevation of bone that is usually prominent.
Tubercle - a small knob like process.
Protuberance - knob like protrusion of bone.
Trochanter - large blunt elevation found only on femur.
Tuberosity, large round elevation, knob like process usually larger than a tubercle.
Malleolus - hammerhead like elevation on distal lower leg bones.
Facet - small smooth flat areas that articulate.
Condyle - a large, rounded knob that usually articulates with another bone.
Epicondyle - an enlargement near or superior to a condyle.
Fossa - a flat region or shallow depression on a bone.
Groove - long narrow depression
Notch - Indentation at the edge
Meatus - a canal that enters but doesn’t pass through a structure
c) What are the main bones and bony landmarks of the: Skull, Trunk, Upper limb, Lower limb, Pelvic girdle and
Pectoral girdle?
o Skull Bones (8) - Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Sphenoid, Mandible and Maxilla, Temporal and Zygomatic
o Skull Bony Features - Foramen Magnum, external auditory meatus, and pituitary fossa or sella turnica.
o Trunk (51) - 26 vertebrae comprised of 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumber plus sacrum and coccyx, 24 ribs,
14 true 6 false and 4 floating and the sternum.
o Upper limb - humerus, radius, ulna, phalanges, metacarpals, carpals, scapula
o Lower limb - femur, patella, tibia, fibula, talus, metatarsal, calcaneus and phalanges.
o Pelvic girdle - pelvic brim, subpubic angle, acetabulum, obturator foramen, iliac crest, anterior superior iliac
spine, ischial tuberosity, pubic symphysis, sacroiliac joint
o Pectoral girdle - clavicle and scapula.
d) Distinguish the general features found on a typical vertebrae, and determine how these features differ across
the various regions of the vertebral column.
e) Identify the features found on a typical rib and how these attach onto the vertebra and the sternum.
f) What is the difference between the pelvic girdle and the bony pelvis?
The two hip bones (ox coxae) are together called the pelvic girdle. When hip bones are combined with the sacrum
and coccyx of the axial skeleton, they are referred to as the pelvis. The pubic symphysis is the articulation that joins
the two os coxae anteriorly and it is a cartilaginous joint that allows slight movement
4. Name and describe the major classifications of joints.
a) Explain how joints are classified based on structural and functional differences.
The structural classification divides joints into fibrous (immoveable), cartilaginous (slightly moveable), and synovial
joints (freely moveable).
b) Describe the characteristics and sub-classification of fibrous and cartilaginous joints, giving examples.
Fibrous joints Cartilaginous joints
- contain fibrous connective tissue and c) - contain cartilage and allow very little
cannot move; fibrous joints include movement; there are two types of
sutures, syndesmoses, and gomphoses. cartilaginous joints: synchondroses
and symphyses
- Examples:
- Examples:
coronal sutures, tibiofibular and teeth with sockets
respectively. epiphyseal plate, and intervertebral
respectively.
Explain the features common to all synovial joints and give
examples synovial joints.
5. Describe the types of movements that can occur at selected joints.
a) Define various terms of movement that occur at synovial joints.
b) Describe movements that can occur at various joints such as the hips, knees, ankle, shoulder,
elbow, forearm, and wrist
Describe the types of movements that can occur at selected joints. features common to all synovial joints: lubricating
synovial fluid found within their joint cavities, hyaline cartilage, a joint cavity, articular capsule, supporting ligaments,
subchondral bone Examples of synovial joints are shoulders and elbow. types of movements that can occur at
selected joints: abduction (away), adduction (towards), extension (open), flexion (close) and rotation. Chondroblasts:
Hyaline cartilage consists of specialised cells called chondroblasts that produce the matrix that will surround them.