A PROJECT REPORT

ON

LAGRANGE’S THEOREM
&
SYLOW’S THEOREMS
A Project Submitted to the Utkal University, Vani Vihar
Bhuabneswar in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the
Master’s Degree in Mathematics.

Submitted by :
ARUP ABINASH NANDA
P.G SECOND YR.(22MATH020)
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS,
UTKAL UNIVERSITY,VANIVIHAR,BHUBANESWAR,751004.

Under the Guidance of :

Dr. ANUSAYA NATH
Assistant Professor At Dept. Of Mathematics,
Utkal University
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project entitled “Langrange’s

Theorem & Sylow’s Theorems” has been submitted by Arup
Abinash Nanda, Roll No.-11818V224008 to the Utkal University,
Vani Vihar BBSR. He has prepared this thesis under my Supervision
and Guidance in partial fulfillment for the award of [Link]. Degree in
Mathematics . The work is original and has not been submitted to
other Institute or University for any other Degree or for publication. He
has taken proper care and shown utmost sincerity in making the
project a successful one.

The research work is original to the best of my knowledge.

Signature of H.O.D Supervisor’s Signature

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I feel that this work would have been completed without

expressing my gratitude and obligation to those who have provided
me the valuable co-operation in completing this work.

The worthy personality to receive my gratitude first is my guide

and supervisor Dr. Anusaya Nath, Assistant professor Dept. Of
Mathematics, Utkal University. Her constant inspiration helped me to
work out this project. I am ever obliged to her for her noble,
intellectual and timely advice and guidance in completing this project
work. I fell indebted to my guide.

Finally I am thankful and express my gratitude to all my teacher

of the department of Mathematics for providing me necessary help
and cooperation for my project. I am also thankful to my family and
my friends for their encouragement and support which enabled me to
continue my work till its successful completion.

Arup Abinash Nanda

Roll No.- 11818V224008
Dept. of Mathematics
Utkal University,vanivihar
 DECLARATION

I do hereby declare, that this project report entitled

“Langrange’s Theorem & Sylow’s Theorems” has been prepared
by me in partial fulfillment of the requirement of Master’s Degree in
Mathematics at Utkal University, Vanivihar, Bhubaneswar. It is a piece
of my own research work based upon the data or information gathered
from various sources during the research period and this has not been
submitted previously to any other institution or University for any other
degree or for publication.

Arup Abinash Nanda

Roll No.- 11818V224008

[Link] Mathematics,
Utkal University, Vanivihar
 CONTENTS

Page No.
 ABSTRACT 1

 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND & INTRODUCTION 2

 SECTION 1 – THEORY OF COSETS 3-10

 SECTION 2 – LAGRANGE’S THEOREM AND 11-23

ITS COROLLARIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

 SECTION 3 – CONVERSE OF LAGRANGE’S THEOREM 24-30

 SECTION 4 – THEORY OF CONJUGACY CLASSES, 31-39

CLASS EQUATION & ITS APPLICATIONS

 SECTION 5 – SYLOW’S THEOREMS 40-48

 SECTION 6 – SOME APPLICATIONS OF 49-53

SYLOW’S THEOREMS TO FINITE GROUP THEORY

 FINDINGS & CONCLUSION 54-56

 REFERENCES 56
 ABSTRACT

In this project work I have focused light on the two significant

results of finite group theory – namely : Lagrange’s theorem and
Sylow’s theorems, According to various algebraists, these two results
are considered as two milestones of finite group theory. The first
section includes the theory of cosets which is a preliminary before
studying Lagrange’s theorem. It is shown that how these subsets
called coset partition the group into a finite number of non-empty
disjoint sets. In fact, we will study Lagrange’s theorem in terms of
cosets. Actually, the original version of Lagrange’s theorem is older
than the group theory itself. In the third section of my project work I
have made an enquiry about the converse of this theorem which is
readily found to be false by using a counter example. Then, I have
made a small discussion about conjugacy classes (another way of
partitioning a group) before proceeding to three theorems which were
pioneered by Sylow. These three theorems are of immense
importance. Finally, I ended my work by showing some of the
application of these theorems to show their fruitfulness.
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND
INTRODUCTION

The origin of Lagrange’s theorem dates back to 1770-71, when a

French mathematician named Joseph Louis Lagrange used his version
of this theorem in connection with the problem of solving the general
polynomial of degree 5 or higher and its relation to symmetric
functions. The original version of this theorem was quite complicated.
Then, after 30 years, a young French Mathematician named Evariste
Galois came up with the idea of cosets. Studying Lagrange’s theorem
in terms of cosets reduces its complicacy in many ways and imposes
this theorem to group theory.

Around 1872, the Norwegian mathematician Peter Ludwig

Sylow discovered some theorems which were later named after him
as Sylow theorems. These theorems are mostly applied while
classifying a group of a particular order. They are also used in the
theory of finite simple groups. The first theorem given by Sylow
guarantees the existence of special subgroups called Sylow subgroups
of a particular group of finite order. Sylow’s first theorem provides an
easy proof of Cauchy’s theorem for finite groups which is an extension
of Cauchy’s theorem for finite abelian groups. The first two Sylow’s
theorems guarantee the existence of special subgroups where as the
Sylow’s third theorem is a counting theorem.
 1. Theory of Cosets
The notion of a coset was first discovered by French
Mathematician Evariste Galois in 1830. But the term ‘Coset’ was first
coined by G.A. Miller in 1910.

Definition of Coset -

Let H be a subgroup of a group G then for any a ∈ G the set

aH ={ ah|h ∈ H } is called the left coset of G containing a . Similarly the

set Ha= {ha|h ∈ H } is called the right coset of H containing a .

The concept of cosets can be best understood by observing the

example given bellow.

Example - 1.1

Let G=S 3 and H= {(1),(13 ) } . Then find the left cosets of H in G.

Solution :- Given , G=S 3

Clearly, S3 ={ (1),(12),(23 ),(13 ),(123),(132) }

The left cosets of H in G are given by

(1) H = H

(12) H= {(12), (12 ) (13 ) }= {(12), (132 ) }=(132 ) H

(13) H= {(13 ), (13) (13 ) }={(13 ), (1) } = H

(23) H= {(23 ), (23) (13 ) }={ (23), (123 ) }= (123) H

Now after studying the above example – 1.1 , it becomes usual to ask
the following questions.
(i) When does the coset absorb a group element (i.e aH =H for
a ∈ G )?
(ii) What is the condition for equality of two cosets?
(iii) Under what conditions two cosets are disjoint?
(iv) When does aH become a subgroup of G ?

(v) What is the relationship between |H| and |aH| ?

These question can be answered satisfactorily by studying the

properties of cosets.

Property – (i) Let H be a subgroup of a Group G, then a ∈ aH for

any a ∈ G .

Proof : since a=ae and e ∈ H (∵ H≤G )

Hence a ∈ aH . Proved)

Property – (ii) :- Let H be a subgroup of group G, and a ∈ G then

aH =H if and only if a ∈ H .

Proof :- The condition is necessary

Suppose that aH =H

Then by property – (i) we have a ∈ aH=H i.e in particular a ∈ H .

The condition is sufficient

Suppose a ∈ H

We have to show that aH =H

Since H ≤G , by closure property of H it is concluded that

aH ⊆ H …..… (1)
 Now we claim that H ⊆aH …… (2)

Now let h ∈ H

⇒ h ∈ H and a ∈ H

⇒ a−1 h∈ H

⇒ a ( a−1 h ) ∈aH

⇒ ( aa−1 ) h ∈aH

⇒ eh ∈aH

⇒ h∈ aH

∴ H ⊆ aH and hence our claim is verified.

Now from (1) and (2) it is concluded that aH =H . This completes

the proof.

Property – (iii) Let H be a subgroup of G, and let a and b belong to

G then aH =bH or aH ∩bH=φ .

aH ∩bH=φ then we are done. Now let us assume that

Proof : If
aH ∩bH≠φ and we have to show that aH =bH since aH ∩bH≠φ we

must have x ∈ aH ∩bH≠φ for some x in G.

⇒ x ∈ aH and x ∈ bH

⇒ x =ah1 =bh 2 for some h1 , h 2 ∈ H

⇒ a=bh2 h
1−1

−1
⇒ a=bh where h=h2 h 1 ∈ H
Hence aH =(bh )H =b( hH )=bH (By using property (ii))

This completes the proof . (Proved)

Property – (iv) Let H be a sub-group of a group G and a , b ∈ G then

|aH|=|bH|.

Proof :- Let us consider the correspondence

φ : aH →bH defined by

φ (ah) = bh

Let ah 1=bh2 in aH

⇒ h1=h2 (By cancellation)

⇒ bh1 =bh 2

⇒ φ(ah 1 )=φ( ah2 )

Hence φ is well –defined i.e φ is indeed a mapping.

φ is one- to- one

Let φ (ah1 )=φ(ah 2 ) for some ah 1 , ah2 ∈ aH

Now φ (ah1 )=φ(ah 2 ) .

⇒ bh1 =bh 2

⇒ h1=h2

⇒ ah1 =ah 2

∴ φ is one to one
φ is onto

By definition of φ it follows that for every bh in bH there exists an

ah in H such that φ (ah)=bH

∴ φ is onto

Thus φ defines an one-to-one correspondence from aH to bH

∴ |aH|=|bH|. (Proved)

In particular if we take b=e then we have |aH|=|eH|=|H|

i.e |aH|=|H| for all a ∈ G .

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Property :- (v) Let H be subgroup of a group G and a , b ∈ G then

aH =bH if and only if a−1 b ∈ H .

Proof : At first we claim that

aH =bH ⇔ ( a−1 b ) H=H …… (1)

Necessary part

Suppose aH =bH

⇒ ah1 =bh 2 for some h1 ,h 2 ∈ H

⇒ a−1 b=h1 h−1

2 ∈H

⇒ ( a−1 b ) H=H

Hence aH =bH (By propery – ii)

Sufficient Part

−1
Assume that (a b) H=H …. (2)

We have to show that aH =bH

Let x ∈ bH

⇒ x =bh

Now h ∈ H By (2) we have

a−1 bh=h for some h' ∈ H

'

⇒ bh=a h' ∈ aH

⇒ x =bh ∈aH

∴ bh ⊆aH ….. (3)

Similary, let y ∈aH

Then y=a h̄ for someh̄ ∈ H

Again by (2) we have

(a−1 b) h̄=h̄∗¿ ¿

⇒ a h̄=b h̄∗¿ ¿

⇒ y=a h̄ ∈ bH
∴ aH ⊆bH ………… (4)

From (3) and (4) it follows that aH=bH . Hence our claim is verified
.
 −1
Thus aH=bH ⇔ ( a b )H =H .

But by property (ii)

(a−1 b )H =H ⇔ a−1 b ∈ H …. (5)

Thus from (1) and (5) it is concluded that aH =bH if and only if
a−1 b ∈ H . This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now let us define an equivalence relation on a group and find the

equivalence classes that partitions of group G having a subgroup.

We define a relation ‘~’ on G such that for any a,b∈ H

a ~b iff aH =bH

We note that

‘~’ is reflexive

Let a ∈ G clearly aH =aH ⇒ a ~ a

‘~’ is symmetric

Let a , b ∈ G and a ~b

⇒ aH=bH

⇒ a−1 b ∈ H
−1
⇒ ( a−1 b ) ∈ H

⇒ b−1 a ∈ H

⇒ bH=aH

⇒b~a
‘~’ is transitive

Let a ,b ,c ∈G such that a ~b and b ~ c

i.e aH =cH and bH =cH

⇒ aH =cH

⇒a~c

Hence finally, it is concluded that ~ is an equivalence relation.

Now let a ∈ G . Then the equivalence class of a is given by

[ a ]~ ={ x ∈ G|a ~ x }

= { x ∈G|aH =xH }

= { x ∈G|x ∈ aH }

[As done in the proof of property (v)]

∴ [ a ]~ =aH

From this we can say that distinct cosets of G do form a partition of

G. Now we proceed to the final property of the cosets.

Property – (vi) :- Let g be a group and H be a subgroup of G and

let a ∈ G . Then aH is a subgroup of G if and only if a ∈ H .

Proof :- a ∈ H ⇒ aH =H ≤G [By property (ii)]

i.e a ∈ H ⇒ aH ≤G

Conversely, if aH ≤G we have e ∈ aH . Hence H∩aH= { e } ≠ φ therefore

aH =H

This completes the proof. (Proved )

 Now we are ready for studying Lagrange’s theorem and its
corollaries in the next section.

While studying Lagrange’s theorem we use coset to partition a

Group, but in case of studying Sylow’s theorems we partition G by
its conjugacy classes. With this in mind we will derive the class
equation for a group.

2. Lagrange’s theorem, its corollaries and

their applications.

The original version of Lagranges theorem is about 200 years

old. We will study this theorem in terms of cosets. This theorem
was first proved by pietro Abbati.

Theorem 2.1 (Lagrange’s theorem)

Statement :- If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then

|H|divides |G|. Moreover, the number of distinct cosets of H in G is
|G|/|H|.
Proof :- Let a 1 H , a 2 H ,. .. . , ar H denote the distinct left cosets of H in G.

Then for each a in G, we have aH =ai H for some i with 1≤ i ≤ r . Also

by property – (i) of cosets a ∈ aH . Thus, each member of G belongs
to one of the cosets aiH. In symbols,

Now since distinct left cosets are disjoint we must that

r r r
|G|=∑ |ai H|=∑ |eH|=∑ |H|
i=1 i =1 i=1

⇒|G|=r|H| ….(1)

Where r is the number of distinct left cosets of H in G. From (i) it

becomes obvious that |H| divides |G|, number of distinct left of

|G|
G=r=
cosets of H in |H|

(this completes the proof) (Proved)

Now, we proceed to discuss some of the important corollaries of

Lagrange’s theorem.

Corollary – I :- Let G be a finite group and a be an element of G

then |a| divides |G|.

Proof :- Since a ∈ G we must have ⟨a⟩≤G where ⟨a⟩ is the cyclic

subgroup of G generated by ‘a’ and ⟨ a⟩= {a |n ∈ z } , since ⟨a⟩≤G

n
, it
follows from the Lagrange’s theorem that |⟨a⟩| divides |G|. But we

know that |⟨a⟩|=|a|. Hence |a| divides |G| . This completes the proof .
( Proved)

Corollary -2 :- A group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof :- Let G be a group of prime order say |G|= p where p is a

prime since |G|≠1 we must have an non-identity element in G say

‘g’. Now g ∈G and g≠e . Now , by corollary -1 to the Lagrange’s

theorem it follows that |g| ||G| i.e |g| | p .

⇒|g|=1 or ⇒|g|=|p|

But, since g≠e we have |g|≠1 .

Hence |g|= p ⇒|⟨g⟩|= p

Now ⟨g ⟩⊆G and |⟨ g⟩|=|G|=p

∴ G=⟨g⟩
Hence G is cyclic.

This completes the proof . (Proved)

Lagrange’s theorem provides an easy and short proof of Fermat’s

little theorem which is used mostly in number theory. Fermat’s little
theorem is derived as a special case of the third corollary of the
Lagrange’s theorem which is going to be discussed now.
Corollary- 3 :- If a is any integer relatively prime to n, then
a φ(n )≡1( mod n )

Proof :- since two integers a and n are relatively prime we must

have gcd (a , n )=1

Now by division algorithm there exist unique integers q and r such

that

a=nq+r ; 0≤r <n ….(1)

( r is non-zero since a and n are co-prime )

Clearly from (1) we have

0≤r <n and gcd (r , n)=gcd( a , n)=1

i.e gcd (a , n )=1 and 0< r <n

∴ r ∈U (n )

Again from (1) we have a≡r mod n

a φ(n )≡r φ ( n)( modn ) … (2)

But, since r ∈U (n) and |U (n)|=φ(n) and by the corollary-1 of

Lagrange’s theorem |r|||U (n )|=φ(n )

⇒|r|| φ (n)

⇒ r φ ( n) mod n=1

⇒ r φ ( n)≡1(mod n) ….(3)

By combining (2) and (3) we get

 a φ(n )≡1 (mod n )

This completes the proof . (proved)

Definition of φ (n)

φ (n) denotes the number of relatively prime positive integers less

than n. we define φ (n) by

a φ(n )=
{ 1 for n=1
|U (n)| for n>1

Formats little theorem

Statement :- Let a be an integer and p is a prime number then

a p ≡a ( mod p )

Proof : Now any one of the following two cases arises.

Case (1) a is not relatively prime to p i.e gcd(a,p) = p

Case (2) a is relatively prime to p i.e gcd (a,p) = 1

Case –(1) If gcd (a , p)=p then p|a

∴ p|a p−a ⇒a p ≡a( mod p )

Case – (2) If gcd (a , p)=1 then by the corollary -3 of the Lagrange’s

φ( p )
theorem we have a ≡1(mod p )

⇒ p|( a p−1−1 )

⇒ p|a ( a p−1−1 )

⇒ p|a p −a

⇒ a p ≡a (mod p )
 p
In either cases we obtain a ≡a( mod p )

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now a useful definition is given bellow.

Definition :

Index of H in G :- Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of G

then index of H in G is denoted as |G : H| and is defined as the

number of distinct left (or right). Cosets of H in G. From Lagrange’s
theorem it becomes clear that

|G|
|G : H| =
|H|

Applications :

Now we will give some examples based on the results

discussed earlier in this section.

Example – 2.1 (Application to number theory)

Q) Compute 713 mod 11

Clearly by Fermat’s little theorem we have

711−1≡1( mod 11)

⇒7 10≡1 (mod 11)

⇒7 12≡49 ( mod 11)

⇒7 12≡5 (mod 11)

 ⇒7 13≡35 (mod 11)

⇒7 13≡2 (mod 11)

∴ 713 mod 11=2

Example – 2.2

Q.- A group has order 60, then what is the possible order for its
elements.

Ans. – Since order of an element divides the order of the group, the
only possible orders for the elements are the divisors of 60 i.e 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 30, 60.

Note : From example – 2.2 it is clear that Lagrange’s theorem puts a

limitation on the order of a subgroup of a finite group.

Example – 2.3 Find the number of distinct left cosets of the subgroup
An in Sn for n>1 .

Solution :- It directly follows from the Lagrange’s theorem that

|S n|
number of distinct left cosets of An in Sn ( r ) is |A n|

We know that
|S n|=n ! and |A n|=n !/2

|S n| n!
∴ r= = =2
|A n| (n !/ 2 )

∴ The number of distinct left cosets of An in Sn is 2.

It is observed that An is a normal subgroup of Sn . With this in mind we

generalize the previous example to the following lemma.
 H ⊲G .
Lemma :- Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G such that the

index of H in G is two, then H is a normal subgroup of G i.e

|G|
|G : H|= =2
Proof : we have |H|

From Lagrange’s theorem it follows that the number of distinct left or

right cosets of H in G is 2. Let L H and L R be the set of distinct left and

right cosets of H in G respectively. Clearly

L H ={ H ,G−H } , L R = { H , G−H } ,

(∵ Cosets partitions G)

Where G−H ={ g ∈G|g∉ H }

Cleary for any h ∈ H ⊆G we have hH =H=Hh

Now suppose that g ∈G but g ∉ H .

Then gH≠H and Hg≠H . Hence

gH=G−H , Hg=G−H

∴ gH=Hg

Hence we have xH=Hx for all x ∈ G

∴ H is normal in G i.e H ⊲ G

This completes the proof. (Proved)

The lemma given above provides an easy test for normality of a

subgroup provided that it consists of exactly half of the element of the
group.
 Now, at this point we have discussed an important theorem
called orbit stabilizer theorem. This theorem will be used in later
sections in proving Sylow’s 2 nd and 3rd theorems. Before proceeding to
the usual statement and proof of this theorem, we will discuss some
preliminaries given bellow.

Definition of stabilizer of a point

Let G be a group of permutations of a set S. For each i in S, the

stabilizer of i in G is denoted by stabG (i) and is defined as

s tab G ( i )= { φ ∈G|φ( i )=i }

Lemma :- Let G be a permutation group consisting of permutations of

a set set S (S≠φ ) .

Then for any i ∈ S , stab G ( i )≤G .

Proof :- We will prove this lemma by using one-step subgroup test.

Let i ∈ S .

It is clear that stab stabG ( i )≤G .

Cleary, the identity permutation (say ε ) belongs to G (∵ G is

permutation group)

Now ε (x )=x for all x∈s

∴ ε (i)=i

⇒ ε ∈ stabG (i ) , Hence φ≠stabG (i)⊆ G

Now let ψ 1 , ψ 2 ∈ stabG (i)

⇒ψ 1 ( i )=i ,ψ 2 ( i )=i
 ⇒ψ 1 ( i )=ψ 2 (i )

ψ1 ψ −1 ∈ stabG ( i )
We now claim that 2

We know that ψ 2 is a permutation of S .

∴ ψ 2 is one-to-one and onto

Hence ψ 2 ( i )=i

⇒ψ 2 ( i )=i

⇒ψ 1 (ψ−1
2 (i))=ψ 1 i

⇒ ( ψ 1 oψ −1
2 ) ( i )=i

−1
Thus ψ 1 oψ 2 ∈ stabG (i ) . Hence, by one step subgroup test stabG ( i )≤G .
This completes the proof. (proved)

Definition of orbit of a point : Let G be a group of permutations on

a set S. For each S in S, let orb G ( s )={ φ ( s )|φ ∈G } . The set orbG(i) is a
subset of S called the orbit of S under G.

The next example clarifies the definitions of orbit and stabilizer.

Example – 2.4

Let G= {(1),(132)( 465)(78 ),(132)(465 ),(123)( 456 ,(123 )(456 )(78),(78 ) } be a

permutation group consisting of permutations on the set S8 = {1 , 2 ,. .. .. , 8 } .
Find orbits and stabilizers of the point 1, 2, 4, 7 of S 8.

Solution :- By observing elements of G it can be found that

orb G (1)=( 1, 3 , 2 ) , stabG (1)= {(1),(78 ) }

 orb G (2)=( 2 ,1 , 3 ) , stab G (2)= {(1),(78 ) }

orb G (4 )=( 4 ,6 , 5 ) , stabG (4 )={(1 ),(78 ) }

orb G (7 )=( 7 , 8 ) , stabG (7 )={(1 ),(132)(465 ),(123)( 456) }

In the next lemma we show that orbits of points of ‘S’ forms a partition
for the set ‘S’.

Lemma :- Orbits of the elements of a set ‘S’ under a permutation

group G consisting of permutations on S partition S.

Proof : Consider a relation ‘~’ on S defined as follow :

For any i , j∈ s , i~ j if and only if φ (i)= j for some φ in G.

Now we observe the following results on ‘~’

‘~’ is reflexive

Let i ∈ S . since the identity permutation ε ∈ G and ε (i )=i , we have i~i .

Hence ‘~’ is reflexive.

‘~’ is symmetric

Let i , j∈ S such that i~j

There exists φ ∈ G such that φ (i)= j since  is a permutation on S, it

must be one-to-one and onto. Therefore,  is invertible and its inverse

is also a permutation on S. Let ψ be the inverse of the permutation φ .

Then Ψ ∈G (∵ A group is closed under the operation

of Taking inverses of group elements )

Now φ (i)= j
 ⇒ψ ( φ(i)=ψ ( j)

⇒(ψoφ)(i)=ψ ( j)

⇒ ε (i)=ψ ( j)

⇒ψ ( j)=i where ψ ∈G

⇒ j ~i

Hence, ‘~’ is symmetric

‘~’ is transitive

Let i , j, k ∈ S , such that i ~ j and j ~ k

⇒ There exists ψ 1 and ψ 2 in G such that

ψ 2 (ψ 1 (i))=k

⇒( ψ 2 oψ 1 ) (i)=k

Now by using the first relation on the second one we get

ψ 2 ( ψ 1 ( i ) )=k

⇒ψ 2 o ψ 1 ( i )=k

Where ψ 2 oψ 1 ∈ G (By closure property of G)

Hence ‘~’ is transitive.

∴ ‘~’ is an equivalence relation on S.

Hence S can be partitioned into disjoint equivalence classes of ‘~’.

But for any i ∈ S , the equivalence class of i under ‘~’ is given by

[ i ]~ ={ j ∈ S|i ~ j }
 = { j∈ S|φ(i)= j for some φ ∈G }

= { φ(i)|i∈ S }

=orbG (i )

Hence we have orb G (i) .

Therefore, orbits of points of S, being equivalence classes of the

corresponding points of S under ‘~’, partition S . This completes the
proof. (Proved)

Now, its time to get exposed to a theorem called orbit-stabilizer

theorem.

Theorem 2.2 (Orbit – stabilizer theorem)

Statement :- Let G be finite group of permutations of a set S. Then

for any i from S, |G|=|orbG (i )|⋅|Stab G (i)| .

Proof :- by Lagrange’s theorem, |G|/|StabG (i )| is the number of distinct

left cosets of StabG (i ) in G . Thus, it is suffices to establish a one-to-one

correspondence between the left cosets of stabG (i) and the elements in

the orbit of i. To do this consider a correspondence T : L H ( i )→OrbG ( i )

which is defined by T (φ Stab G (i))=φ(i ) where L H denotes the set of all

left cosets of StabG (i ) in G. At first we have to show that T is well-

defined i.e T is indeed a mapping. Let φ 1 StabG (i) , φ 2 Stab G (i) ∈ L H such

that φ 1 Stab G (i)=φ2 Stab G (i) .

⇒ φ−1
1 οφ2 ∈ StabG (i )

⇒ ( φ−1
1 οφ 2 ) ( i )=i
 ⇒ φ−1
1 ( φ2 ( i ) )=i

⇒ φ2 (i )=φ1 (i)

⇒ φ1 (i )=φ2 (i)

⇒T ( φ 1 Stab G ( i) ) =T ( φ2 StabG ( i ) )

Hence, T is well defined.

Now, reversing the argument from the last step to the first step shows
that T is also one-to-one. We conclude the proof by showing that T is

onto. Let j ∈ orbG (i ) then α (i)= j for some α ∈ G . But we have

α Stab G ( i ) ∈ L H such that

T ( α Stab G ( i ) ) =α ( i )= j

In particular we have T ( α Stab G ( i ) ) = j

Hence, T is onto. This completes the proof. (Proved)

Finally, we end this section with another application of Lagrange’s

theorem to the number theory. This can be best understood by the
following example which is the last example of this section.

Example – 2.5 Determine the last two digits of 17102.

Solution :- Here we are interested in finding 17 102 mod 100. Clearly

0<17 <100 and gcd(17 , 100)=1

∴ 17 ∈ U (100 )
2 2
Now U (100 )≈U (5 )⊕∪(2 )

¿Z ⊕ Z2
5 2−52 −1
 =Z 20 ⊕ Z 2

Since gcd (20 , 2)=2≠1 we conclude the Z 20 ⊕ Z2 is not cyclic. Therefore, it

has no element of order 40. Let x ∈ G , then by Lagrange’s theorem
possible order for x are 1,2,4,5,10,20. Hence, we have either x=20 or

x is a divisor of 20. In either cases we have x 20 mod 100=1 ∀ x ∈ Z 20 ⊕ Z 2 .

Hence x 20 mod 100=1 for all x ∈ U (100 ) putting x=17 we have

1720 mod 100=1

Hence 1720 ≡1( mod 100)

5
⇒ ( 1720 ) ≡( 1 )5 ( mod 100 )
⇒17 100≡1 ( mod 100 )
⇒17 102≡17 2 ( mod 100)
⇒17 102≡289 ( mod 100 )
⇒17 102≡289 mod 100 ( mod 100 )
⇒17 102≡89 ( mod 100 )
⇒17 102 mod 100=89
Thus, the last two digits are 8 and 9 respectively (from left to right).
The problem given above is very hard to solve manually. Even an
advanced calculator fails to find the answer. But, by using the
technique discussed in the previous example it becomes easy to solve.
 3. Converse of Lagrange’s theorem
After studying Lagrange’s theorem, an eloquent reader may try
to find whether the converse of Lagrange’s theorem is true or false i.e,

if G is a finite group and ‘d’ be any divisor of |G| then whether G has a
subgroup of order d or not.

A simple observation on the alternating group of degree 4 (i.e

4 ! 24
A 4 ) clearly,
|A 4|= = =12 6|12=|A 4| i.e 6||A 4|.
2 2 and

If possible, suppose that A 4 has a subgroup of order 6 namely H.

Clearly, the index of H in G= A 4 is given by

|G| 12
|G : H|= = =2
|H| 6

Since, |G : H|=2 , we have H ⊲ G i.e H ⊲ A4

Hence A 4 / H exists and has order 2. Since the order of an element

2 2 2
divides the order of the group we have ( αH ) =H ⇒ α H=H ⇒α ∈ H for

all α in A 4 . Now in A 4 we have

(1)2 =(1 )

(123 )2=(132) , (132)2 =(123 )

(234 )2 =(243 ) , (243 )2=(234 )

(134 )2 =(143 ) (143 )2=(134 )

∴ H must contain at least 7, distinct elements of A 4 . But, this is a

contradiction to the fact that |H|=6 .

Therefore, G= A 4 has no subgroup of order 6 though 6 is a divisor of

| A 4|.

From the discussion made in the previous paragraph, we concluded

the result given below.

Result – The converse of Lagrange’s theorem is false.

Now consider the following example .

Example 3.1 – Find all subgroups of ¿(8 ) and compute their orders.

Solution :

U (8)= {1 , 3,5, 7 }

Subgroup of U (8 ) Order of the corresponding subgroup

{1} 1

{1 , 3} 2

{ 1 ,5 } 2

{ 1 ,7 } 2

{ 1,3,5,7 } 4

Clearly, the above example suggests that the converse of

Lagrange’s theorem is true for ¿(8 ) . similarly, the fundamental

theorem for cyclic group implies that the converse of Lagrange’s
theorem is true for all cyclic group from these observations it becomes
evident that Lagrange’s theorem is true for certain finite groups
having a particular type of order or structure.

In general, converse of Lagrange’s theorem is true for finite abelian

groups. Before, proving this, we have to study Cauchy’s theorem for
finite abelian groups and then a lemma which are later used in the
proof.

Theorem 3.1 (Cauchy’s theorem for finite abelien groups)

Statement :- Let G be a finite abelian group and let p be a prime that

divides the order of G. Then G has an element of order p.

Proof :- Clearly the statement is true for the case in which G has
order 2. We will prove the theorem by using second principle of

mathematical induction on|G| . That is we assume that the statement is

true for all abelian groups with fewer elements than G and use this to
prove that the statement is true for G as well. Certainly G has elements
n
of prime order, for if |x|=m and m= qn where q is prime then|x |=q . So
let x be an element of G of some prime order, say q. If q = p, we are
finished ; so assume that q≠ p . Since every subgroup of an abelian

group is normal, we may construct the factor group Ḡ=G /⟨ x⟩ . Clearly,

|G|
|Ḡ|=
Ḡ is abelian and p divides |Ḡ|, since q . Clearly |Ḡ|<|G| (as q>1).

Hence, from induction hypothesis Ḡ has an element of order p say

y ⟨x⟩ . Thus ( y ⟨x⟩ ) p=⟨ x⟩

⇒ ( y p ) ⟨ x ⟩=⟨x ⟩

⇒ y p ∈⟨ x⟩
 ⇒ y p =e or ( y p ) q =e

p
If y =e then y is the desired element of order p ; if ( y p )q =e i.e

( y q ) p=e then y
q
is an element of G with order p.

In either case, we have produced an element of order p in G. this

completes the proof. (Proved)

Now we consider the lemma given bellow.

Lemma 3.1 :- Let N be a normal subgroup of G then every subgroup

of G/N is of the form H / N where H is a subgroup of G.

Proof : Clearly, G/ N= { gN|g ∈G } . Let Ḡ≤G /N

Now, we define a subset H of G as follows.

H= { x ∈G|xN ∈ Ḡ }

Clearly, e ∈ G and eN =N ∈ Ḡ (∵ Ḡ≤G/ N )

Hence e ∈ H . This implies that H is non-empty.

Now let h1 ,h 2 ∈ H

⇒ h1 N , h2 N ∈ Ḡ

⇒ ( h1 N ) ( h 2 N )−1 ∈ Ḡ (∵ Ḡ≤G/ N )

(
⇒ ( h1 N ) h−1 N ∈ Ḡ
2 )
⇒ ( h 1 h−1 ) N ∈ Ḡ
2
 −1
⇒ h1 h ∈H
2

Hence by one-step subgroup test H ≤G .

Now we have to prove that N ⊲ H

since e ∈ N , we have N≠φ .

Let x ∈ N then xN =N ∈ Ḡ⇒ x ∈ H

Hence, N ⊆ H

Thus it becomes clear that N≤H

N ⊲G

⇒ gN =Ng , ∀ g ∈G

⇒ gN =Ng , ∀ g ∈ H (∵ H ⊆G)

∴ N ⊲H

Therefore, we can construct the factor group H / N . Finally we claim

that Ḡ=H /N

Let x ∈ Ḡ

⇒ x =gN ∈ Ḡ for some g ∈G

⇒g∈ H

⇒ gN ∈ H /N

∴ Ḡ ⊆ H / N …..(1)

Again , let y ∈H/N

 ⇒ y=hN for some h ∈ H

⇒ y=hN and h ∈G as h ∈ H ⊆G

⇒ y ∈ Ḡ as h ∈ H

∴ H / N ⊆ Ḡ ……(2)

Hence, from (1) and (2 ) we found that

Ḡ=H /N where H ≤G .

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now, we are ready to get exposed to a theorem that

characterizes a special family Groups for which the converse of the
Lagrange’s theorem is true.

Theorem 3.2

Statement :- The converse of Lagrange’s theorem is true for finite

abelian groups .

Proof : Let G be a finite abelian group and m be a positive divisor of

|G|. Then we need to show that G has a subgroup of order m. We will
prove this by using the second principle of mathematical induction on

the order of G. If |G|=1 then the statement of the theorem is trivially

true. Now, let us assume that the theorem holds for all finite abelian

groups having order greater than or equal to 1 and less than |G|. Then,

we have to show that the theorem is also true for G. Let |G|=n , we
t
have m|n clearly m=m1 p for some m 1 ∈ z and p is prime.
 m|n
Now

⇒ m1 p|n

⇒ p|n=|G|
∴ By Cauchy’s theorem for finite abelian groups we must have an

element x in G such that |x|=p . Clearly K=⟨x⟩ is a subgroup of G.

Since every subgroup of an abelian group is a normal subgroup, we
conclude that K is normal in G. the we can construct the factor group
G/ K which is also abelian. Clearly the order of the factor group G/ K is

|G| |G| |G| |G|

|G/ K|= = = = <|G|
given by |K| |⟨x⟩| |x| p

i.e |G/ K|<|G|

Now m||G|
⇒ m1 p||G|
|G|
⇒ m1 p| |K|
|K|
⇒ m1 p||K| p
⇒ m1||G / K|
Now, from induction hypothesis it follows that there exists a subgroup
Ḡ of G/ K having order m1 .

Now by using previous lemma we find that Ḡ=H /K where H is a

subgroup of G.

|H|
⇒|Ḡ|=|H /K|=
|K|
 |H|
⇒|Ḡ|=
|K|

|H|
⇒ m1 =
p

⇒|H|= pm1 =m

Therefore, |H|=m and H is a subgroup of G. This completes the proof.

(Proved)

Besides , finite abelian groups, the converse of Lagrange’s theorem is

also true for p- groups. This result follows immediately from Cauchy’s
theorem for finite groups which itself is a consequence of Sylow’s first
theorem.

We will end this section by giving the definition of p- groups.

Definition of p- groups :

A group G is called a p- group if its order is a power of a prime number

n
p i.e. |G|= p for n ∈ Z .
+

Note :- Every subgroup of p-group is itself a p- group.

4
Example 3.2 :- Z 81 is a 3- group as |Z 81|=81=3 .

In a similar fashion U (8) is a 2 – group since |U (8)|=|{ 1,3,5,7 }|=4=2

2

Now we put an end to this section.

 4. Theory of conjugacy classes, class equation and its
application.

In this section we will study conjugacy classes and how these

classed forms a partition of the group. We begin this section with the
definition of conjugacy classes.

Definition of conugacy class :- Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ two elements of a group
−1
G. We say that a and b are conjugate in G if xax =b for some x in G.

The conjugacy class of a is the set cl( a)= { xax |x ∈ G } .

−1

Now consider the following example.

Example – 4.1 : We know D4 ={ R0 , R 90 , R180 , R270 , H ,V , D , D }

'

Hence by the above definition it follows that

cl ( R 0 ) ={ xR 0 x−1|x ∈ D 4 }={ R 0 }

Similarly, cl ( R180 )= {R 0 }

cl ( R 270 )= { R90 , R 270 }=Cl ( R270 )

cl( H )= { H , V }=Cl (V )

cl( D )={ D , D' }=Cl ( D' )

A close observation to the above example suggests that

conjugacy classes of D4 partition D4 . Now, it is usual to raise the

question whether in general, the conjugacy classes partition a group.
The next theorem provides a satisfactory answer to this question.

Theorem 4.1
Statement :- Conjugacy is an equivalence relation, and the conugacy
class of a is the equivalence class of a under conjugacy.

Proof :- We denote conjugacy of ‘~’ where the ‘~’ is defined on a

group G as follows.

For any a , b ∈ G ; a ~b iff xax−1 =b for some x ∈ G .

‘~’ is reflexive

−1
Clearly, a=eae for all a ∈ G

⇒ eae−1=a for all a ∈ G

⇒a~a for all a ∈ G

∴ ‘~’ is reflexive

‘~’ is symmetric

Let a , b ∈ G and a ~b

⇒ xax−1 =b for some x ∈ G

⇒ x−1 bx=a for some x ∈ G

−1
⇒ ( x −1 ) b ( x−1 ) =a for x−1 ∈G

⇒b~a

‘~’ is symmetric.

‘~’ is taransitive

Let a , b ∈ G such that a ~b and b ~ c .

⇒ xax −1=b and yay −1 =c for some x , y ∈G

⇒ y (xax −1 ) y−1 =c for some x , y ∈G

⇒( yx) a ( x−1 y−1 )=c for some x , y ∈G

⇒( yx) a ( yx)−1 =c for yx ∈G

⇒a~c

∴ ‘~’ is transitive.

Now, it follows that ‘~’ is an equivalence relation on G. Thus for a ∈ G ,

the equivalence class of a under ‘~’ is given by

[ a ]~= { x ∈G|a ~ x }

= { x ∈G| yay −1=x for some y ∈G }

= { yay−1| y ∈G }

=cl(a )

⇒ [ a ]~=cl( a )

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now we turn our attention to the next theorem which counts the
number of conjugetes of a group element.

Theorem 4.2

Statement : Let G be a finite group and let a be an element of G.

Then, |cl(a)|=|G :C (a)|.

 |G|
|G :C (a)|=
Poof :- Clearly |C( a)|

The number of distinct left cosets C(a) in G.

Where, C (a )={ x ∈ G|ax=x }≤G

Let L= { g C (a )|g ∈ G }

|G|
|L|=
Clearly |C(a)|

Now we need to show that |cl(a)|=|L| . To do this, les us consider the

correspondence

T : cl (a )→L defined by

T ( x )=g C( a) where x=gag−1 ∈ cl(a ) for a g ∈G .

Let x 1 , x2 ∈ cl(a ) such that x 1=x 2 since x 1 , x2 ∈ cl(a ) we must have

x 1=g 1 ag−1 −1
1 , x 2 =g 2 ag 2 for g1 , g2 ∈G .

x 1=x 2
Therefore,

⇒ g 1 ag−1 −1
1 =g2 ag2

⇒ g−1 −1
2 g 1 ag 1 g 2=a

−1
⇒ ( g−1
2 g1 ) a ( g 2 g 1 ) =a
−1

⇒ ( g−1
2 g1 ) a=a ( g2 g 1 )
−1

⇒ g−1
2 g 1 ∈C (a )
 ⇒ g 2 C(a )=g 1 C (a )

⇒ g 1 C(a )=g 2 C (a )

⇒T ( x 1 )=T (x 2 )

Hence, T is well-defined i.e T is indeed a mapping.

T is one –to-one

Let T ( x1 )=T ( x 2 ) for x 1 , x2 ∈ cl(a )

⇒ g 1 C(a )=g 2 C (a )

−1 −1
(where x 1=g 1 ag1 , x 2 =g2 ag 2 for some g1 , g2 ∈G )

⇒ g−1
1
g2 ∈C ( a )

( g2 a=a ( g
) g 2)
−1 −1
⇒ g
1 1

⇒ ( g g2 ) a ( g1 g 2) =a
−1 −1 −1
1

⇒ g−1
1
( g 2 ag 2 ) =a
−1

⇒ g 1 ag−1 −1
1 =g2 ag 2

⇒ x 1 =x 2

Thus T is one to one.

T is onto

Let y=g C (a )∈ L for some g ∈G .

−1
Then we have an element x=gag ∈ cl(a )

such that, T ( x)
 =T ( gag−1 )

=gC (a )
=y

i.e T ( x )= y

This proves that T is onto as well.

Therefore, T is an one-to-one correspondence from cl( a) onto L. Thus

|cl(a)|=|L| i.e |cl(a)|=|G :C (a)| ( ∵|L|=|G:C (a )|)

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now, by using theorem 4.1 and theorem – 4.2 we will derive an

equation called class equation that plays a very important role in finite
group theory.

Derivation of class equation

From theorem (1) we know that conjugacy classes partition the group.

Thus we have |G|= ∑|cl (a)| ………. (1) (where G is a finite group anda ∈ G )

where the sum runs over an element a from each conjugacy class of
G.

By Theorem – 4.2 we have

|cl(a)|=|G :C (a)| for all a ∈ G ……. (2)

From (1) and (2) we conclude that

|G|=∑ |G :C( a)|

The above equation is called the class equation.

Application of class equation

The first application if class equation is to show that p-Groups

have non-trivial centres.

Theorem4.3

Statement : Let G be a finite group whose order is a power of prime

p. Then Z (G ) has more than one element.

Proof:- First, we observe that cl( a)= { a } if and only if a ∈ Z (G) . Thus, by
culling out these elements, we may write the class equation in the

form |G|=|Z (G)|+Σ|G:C (a )|

Where the sum runs over representatives of all conjugacy classes

with more than one element ( this set may be empty).

k
But, |G :C( a)|= |G|/|C (a )|, so each term in Σ|G:C (a )| has the form p

with k ≥1 .

Hence, |G|− Σ|G :C (a )|

Where each term on the left is divisive by p. It follows that p divides

|Z (G )| and hence |Z (G )|≠1 . This completes the proof. (proved)

The second application of class equation is to show that any

2
group of order p is abelian provided that p is a prime number. This is

a consequence of the Theorem – 4.3

2
Corollary :- Every group of order p is abelian provided that p is a
prime number.
 2
Proof : Let ‘G’ be a group of order p , where p is a prime number.

clearly, Z (G ) is a normal subgroup of G. Now, we can construct the

factor group G/ Z (G ) . As Z (G )≤G we have |Z (G)|/|G|. Therefore, by

Lagrange’s theorem the possible values for |Z(G)| are 1,p and p2.

Case 1 - (|Z (G)|=1 )

In this case Z (G )= {e } . But this contradicts Theorem– 4.3 . Therefore

|Z(G)|≠1 . Thus case -1 is not possible.

Case 2 (|Z (G)|=p )

|G| p2
|G/ Z (G)|= = =p
If |Z (G)|=p , then |Z (G)| p

∴ G /Z (G) is cyclic.

Now, from G/ Z theorem it follows immediately that G is abelian.

Case-3 ( Z ( G )= p )
2

2
In this case and Z (G )⊆G and |Z (G)|=p =|G|

∴ G=Z (G)

Since Z (G ) is abelian we have that G is also abelian.

Therefore, in all possible cases G is found to be abelian. This completes

the proof. (Proved)

We will now end this section with another application of class

equation.
 The probability that two elements of a finite group commute.

Now we will study the last theorem of this section. Before studying the
theorem we have to study a lemma which is important in proving the
theorem.

Lemma : Let G be a finite group and x , y ∈G . Then x and y belong to

the same conjugacy class of G then |C( x)|=|C ( y)| .

Proof : Let x , y ∈ cl(a ) for a ∈ G clearly we have cl( x )=cl( y )=cl(a )

⇒ cl( x )=cl ( y )
⇒|cl( x)|=|cl( y )|
⇒|G:C ( x)|=|G: C( y )| (By Theorem 4.2)

|G| |G|
⇒ =
|C ( x )| |C ( y )|
⇒|C ( x )|=|C( y )|
This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now, We directly proceed to the theorem.

Theorem – 4.4

Statement :- Let G be a finite group of order n and let m be the number

of distinct conjugacy classes of element of G. Then the probability that
any two arbitrarily chosen elements of G will commute is denoted by
m
Pr ( G )=
Pr(G ) and is defined as n .

|K|
Pr(G )=
Proof :- clearly, n2

Where K= {( x , y )∈ G⊕G|xy= yx }
It is observed that for any x ∈ G we have ( x , y )∈ K iff y ∈C ( x )
|K|= ∑ |C ( x )|
Hence, x∈G

Also it follows from the previous lemma that if x and y are in the same

conjugacy class of G, then |C ( x)|=|C( y )|. If, for example,

C ( a )={a 1 , a2 , . .. .. , at }

Then |C (a1 )|+|C (a 2 )|+.. .. .. . .+|C (at )|=t|C (a )|

=|G:C (a )| |C (a1 )|
=|G|
=n

Now by choosing one representative from each conjugacy class, say

x 1 , x2 . . .. . , x m
m
|K|= ∑ |C ( x )|=∑ |G :C( x i )| |C ( x i )|=m×n
We have x ∈G i=1

|K|
Pr(G )=
Thus, n2
m×n
⇒ Pr (G)=
n2 ( ∵|K|=m×n )
m
⇒ Pr (G)=
n
This completes the proof . (Proved)

Note:- If G is abelian then Pr(G )=1

Example 4.2 find Pr ( D 4 )

Solution :- from example -4.1 we know that m = number of distinct

equivalence classes of D 4 =5 , moreover ,

n=|D4|=8

m 5
∴ Pr ( D4 )= ⇒ Pr ( D4 )=
n 8
 5. Sylow’s theorems

In this section, a brief discussion is made on three theorems

given by Peter Ludwig Sylow and their proofs. We will also study some
of the very important implications of these theorems.

Before going to Sylow’s theorems, we study two definitions given

bellow.

Definition of sylow p-subgroup :-

Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime divisor of |G|. If pk

divides |G| and pkH doesn’t divide |G| , then any subgroup of G of order
pk is called a Sylow p-subgroup of G.

Definition of conjugate subgroup :-

Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. We say that H and K are

−1
conjugate in G if there is an element g in G such that H=gKg .

Now at this stage, we are ready to discuss Sylow’s 1 st theorem.

Theorem – 5.1 (Sylow’s first theorem)

k
Statement:- Let G be a finite group and let p be a prime. If p divides
|G|, then G has at least one subgroup of order pk .

Proof : We Proceed by induction on |G|. If |G|=1 , then the statement is

trivially true. Now we assume that the statement is true for all groups

of order less than |G| . If G has a proper subgroup H and p

k
divides ,

then, by our inductive assumption H has a subgroup of order pk and

 k
we are done. Thus we may assume that p does not divide order of
any proper subgroup of G. Next we consider the class equation in the

form |G|=Z (G )+ ∑ |G :C( a)|

.

Where the sum runs of a representative of each conjugacy class

Cl (a ) where a ∉ Z (G) . Since pk divides |G|=|G :C( a)||C (a)| and pk does

not divide |C (a )|( ∵C (a )<G ) , we know that p ||G :C(a)| for all a ∉ Z (G) and

a ∈ G . then it follows from the class equation that p ||Z(G)|. We know

that for any group G, Z (G ) is always abelian. Hence, from Cauchy’s

theorem for finite abelian group it follows that Z (G ) contains an

element of order p, say x. Since x is in the centre of G ,⟨x⟩ is a normal

subgroup of G, and we may form the factor group G/⟨ x⟩ .Now, it is

clearly observable that pk−1 divides |G/⟨x⟩|. Thus, by inductive

assumption G/⟨ x⟩ has a subgroup of p

k−1
. By lemma – 3.1, this

subgroup of G/⟨ x⟩ of the form H /⟨ x⟩ , where H is a subgroup of G. Hence

we have |H /⟨ x⟩=p k−1|

|H| k−1
⇒ =p
|⟨ x⟩|

|H| k−1
⇒ =p
p

⇒|H|= p k , moreover H ≤G

This complete the proof. (Proved)

Example – 5.1

4
Suppose that a finite group G has order 162. Clearly 3 =81
divides 162 and 3 is a prime number. Then Sylow’s first theorem
guarantees the existence of a subgroup of order 81.

Another remarkable fact about Sylow’s theorem is that it provides

a quick and easy proof of Cauchy’s theorem for finite groups.

Corollary :- (Cauchy’s theorem for finite groups).

Statement :- Let G be a finite group and p be a prime that divides the

order of G then G has an element of order p.

Proof.- Since p||G|, from Sylow’s first theorem it follows that G has a

subgroup of order p, Let it be H . |H|=p . Hence , H is cyclic thus there

exists an element x ∈ H ⊆ G such that H=⟨x⟩ .

Now, p=|H|=|⟨x⟩|=|x| i.e |x|=p , moreover x ∈ G .

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Now , let us consider the following, lemma.

Lemma -5.1

Statement – Let K be a Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G, then if

x ∈ N ( K ) and order of x is a power of p, then x ∈ k .
Proof : We know that N ( K )≤G and K ⊲ N ( K ) . Hence, since ⟨ x⟩≤N (K ) ,

we have K ⟨x⟩≤N ( K )≤G .Hence we have

|K| |x|
|K ⟨ x⟩|=
|⟨ x⟩∩K|

|K ⟨ x⟩| |x|
⇒ =
|K| |⟨ x⟩∩K|
|K ⟨ x⟩|
We claim that prime number p doesn’t divide |K| otherwise
|K ⟨ x⟩|
=mp +
|K| for some m ∈ Z .

⇒|K ⟨x⟩|=mp|K|

But by Lagrange’s theorem |K ⟨ x⟩|/|G|

Thus mp|K|/|G|⇒ p|K|/|G|. This is a contradiction to the fact that K is a

Sylow –p- subgroup of G. Hence our claim is verified. Again since
|⟨x⟩|
|⟨ x⟩∩K| is always a power of p. therefore, the only possible case here
|⟨x⟩|
=1
is |⟨ x⟩∩K|

⇒|⟨x⟩|=|⟨x⟩∩K| , moreover ( ⟨ x ⟩∩K )≤⟨ x ⟩

∴ we have K=⟨x⟩ which implied that x ∈ K .

This completes the proof. (Proved)

Theorem – 5.2 (Sylow’s second theorem)

Statement :- If H is a subgroup of a finite group G and |H| is a power

of a prime p. then H in contained in some Sylow p-subgroup of G.

Proof.- let K be a p-Sylow subgroup of G and let C=( K =K 1 , K 2 , .. .. . . , K n )

be the set of all conjugates of K in G since, conjugation is an

isomorphism, each element of C is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Let SC

denote the group of all permutations of C. For each g ∈G , define

φ g : C →C by φ g ( K i )=gK i g−1 .

Let K i =K j for some K i =K j ∈ C

⇒ gK i g−1 =gK j g−1

⇒ φ g ( K i )=φ g ( K j )

∴ φ g is well defined , i.e φ g is indeed a function.

φ g is one to one

Let φ g ( K i )=φ g ( K j ) for K i , K j ∈c

⇒ g K i g=g K j g

⇒ g−1 ( g K i g ) g−1 =g−1 ( g K j g ) g−1

⇒ K i=K j

∴ φ g is one-to-one.

φ g is onto
Let K i ∈C . By definition of C K i is a conjugate of K=K i ∈ C . Hence for

some ḡ ∈G

K i = ḡ K 1 ḡ−1=g ( g−1 ḡ K 1 g−1 ḡ ) g−1

[
⇒ K i=φ g ( g−1 ḡ ) k 1 ( ḡ−1 g ) ]

for ( g ḡ ) k 1 ( ḡ g ) ∈ C
−1 −1

∴ φ g is onto.

Hence φ g is a permutation of C i.e φ g ∈ S C .

Now let us define a mapping T : G → S C by T (g )=φ g .

Let for g1 , g2 , ∈G , g1 =g2

−1 −1
⇒ φ g1 ( K i )=g1 K i g1 =g1 K i g2 =φ g2 ( K i ) K i ∈C
for all

⇒ φ g =φ g
1 2

⇒T ( g1 )=T ( g2 )

∴ T is well-defined i.e T is a function.

Let g1 , g2 ∈G

T ( g 1 g 2 ) =φ g g
1 2

We know that ∀ K i ∈C we have

φg g ( K i ) =( g 1 g2 ) K i ( g 1 g 2 )−1
1 2

=g 1 ( g2 K i g−1 −1
2 )g 1
 =φ g ( φg ( K i ) )
1 2

=φ g ο φ g ( K i )
1 2

∴ φ g g =φg ο φ g
1 2 1 2

⇒T g g =T (g 1 )ο T ( g 2 )
1 2

∴ T is a homomorphism from G to SC.

Next, we consider T(H), the image of H under T. clearly, |T ( H )|

divides |H|. However, |H| is the power of a prime number p. Hence,

|T ( H )| is also a power of p. Similarly since H ≤ G , we haveT ( H ) ≤ S C .
|orbT ( H ) ( K i )|
Therefore, by applying orbit stabilizer theorem we get that

divides |T ( H )| . so that, orb T ( H )( K i ) is a power of p. Now we will search

for the conditions under which

|orbT (H )( K i )|=1 . Clearly, orb T ( H )( K i )=1

−1
iff gK i g =K i for all g∈ H

i.e iff gK i= K i g for all g∈ H

i.e iff g ∈ N ( K i ) for all g∈ H

i.e iff H≤N ( K i )

Now, let x ∈ H≤N ( K i )

⇒ |x| is a power of prime p and x ∈ N ( K i ) , moreover K i is a sylow

p-subgroup of G.

⇒ x ∈ Ki
 i.e H≤K i

∴ |orb T ( H )( K i )|=1 if and only if H≤K i .

So, to complete the proof, all we need to do is show that for some

i , orb T ( H )( K i )=1 . Analogous to Theorem – 4-2

we have |C|=|G: N (K )|, and since

|G : K|=|G: N ( K )| |N ( K ): K| is not divisible by p, neither is |C| .

Because, the orbits partition C, |C| is the sum of powers of p. If no

orbit has size one, then p divides each summand and, therefore,

p divides |C|, which is a contradiction. Because p||C|. therefore

for some K i ∈C ,

we have orb T ( H )( K i )=1 . Thus there is an orbit of size 1. This

completes the proof. (proved)

Now we proceed to Sylow’s third theorem.

Theorem – 5.3 (Sylow’s third theorem)

Statement : The number of Sylow p-subgroups of G is equal to

1mod ulo p and divides |G| . Furthermore, any two Sylow p-subgroups of
G are conjugate.

Proof :- Let K be any Sylow p-subgroup of G and let

C={ K =K 1 , K 2 , .. .. , K n }
be the set of all conjugates of K in G. We first

prove that n=1 mod p .

Consider, SC and T as in the proof of Sylow’s second theorem. This time
in place of T(H) we consider T(K), the image of K under T. As before we

have,
|orbT ( K ) ( K i )| is a power of p for each and |orbT ( K ) ( K i )|=1 if and

only if K≤K i . Thus,

|orbT ( K ) ( K i )|=1 and |orbT ( K ) ( K i )| is a power of p

greater than 1 for all i≠1 . Since the orbits partition C, it follows that
n=|C|=1mod p .

Next we have to show that every Sylow p- subgroup of G belongs

to C. To do this, suppose that H is a Sylow p-subgroup of G that is not

in C. Now consider to |C| is the sum of orbit sizes under the action of
T(H). However, no orbit has size 1. Since H is not in C. Thus |C| is sum

of terms each divisible by p so that n=|C|=0 mod p . This contradiction

proves that, H ∈C and n is the number of sylow p-subgroups of G.

Finally, we have n=|C|=|G: N (K )| .

|G|
n=|G: N ( K )|=
Hence |N ( K )|

⇒ |G|=|N ( K )|⋅ n and |N ( K )|∈ Z +

Thus , we conclude that n ||G| . This completes the proof of Sylow’s

third theorem.
Notation :- The number of Sylow p-subgroups of a finite group G is

denoted by n p .

Now, we consider the following corollary of Sylow’s third theorem.

This corollary is widely used while classifying finite groups of a
particular order.

Corollary
Statement :- A Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G is a normal
subgroup of G if and only if it is the only Sylow p-subgroup of G.

Proof :- The condition is necessary

Suppose that H is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and H is a normal

Subgroup of G. Let K be another Sylow p-subgroup of G. Clearly K is a
conjugate of H (By Sylow’s third theorem) Hence, there exists a g in G
−1
such that K=gHg
H ⊲ G , we
. Since conjugation is an isomorphism we have

H≈gHg −1=K i.e H ≈ K and hence |H|=|K|. Again, since

have gHg−1 ⊆ H i.e K ⊆ H . Thus we have K ⊆ H and |H|=|K|.

Therefore, we have K = H . From, this it is concluded that H is the only
Sylow p-subgroup of G.

The condition is sufficient :

Now, we assume that H is the only Sylow p-subgroup of G. Since

every conjugate of H is also a sylow p-subgroup of G, we , in this case,
have

gHg−1 =H for all g ∈G

⇒ gH =Hg for all g ∈G
⇒H ⊲ G
This completes the proof. (Proved)
Example 5.2 :- consider the Sylow 2-subgroups of S 3. They are
{ (1 ),(12)} , {(1),(23 )} and { (1 ),(13)} . According to Sylow’s third theorem we
can find the second and third subgroups from the first by conjugation
(13 ) {(1),(12) } (13 )−1= {(1),(23 )}
(23 ) {(1),(12 ) } (23 )−1 = {(1),(13 )}
Furthermore, n2 =3 and we have
n2||S 3| =6 and n2 =1 mod p which are
according to Sylow’s third theorem.
Note :-The above trick for finding all Sylow p-subgroups of a finite
group from one Sylow p-subgroup of that group by using conjugation
fails when the given Sylow p-subgroup is a subset of the centre of the
concerned finite group.

6. Applications of Sylow’s theorems to finite

groups.

In this section we will study some applications of Sylow’s

theorems. Generally, these theorems are applicable during the
classification of a finite group having a particular order. Consider the
following example.

Example- 6.1: Prove that a group of order 15 is cyclic.

2
Solution :- Let G be any group of order 15. Since 3|15 and 3 |15 ; 5|
2
15 and 5 |15 , we have that G has Sylow 3-subgroups and Sylow 5-
subgroups having orders 3 and 5 respectively .

We have n3 ≡1( mod 3 ) and n3|15 ;

n5 ≡1( mod 5 ) and n5|15

Hence, the only possible value of n3 is 1.

Thus n3 =1

Similarly, n5 =1
From the corollary of sylow’s third theorem we have that these
subgroups are normal in G. Let H be the sylow 3- subgroup of G and K
be the Sylow 5- subgroup of G.

Then we have H ⊲ G, K ⊲ G .

|H||K|
|HK| =
Again HK ≤ G and |H∩ K| .

But it is clear that H∩K ={ e }

3×5
|HK|= =15=|G|
Hence HK ≤G and 1

∴ G=GK≈ H ⊕ K≈Z 3 ⊕Z 5 ≈Z 15 [ ∵ gcd (3 ,5 )=1 ]

Thus, finally we have G=Z 15

∴ G is a cyclic group. This completes the proof. (Proved)

The previous example shows the fruitfulness of Sylow’s theorems.

By using these theorems, we can find a lot of information about a
finite group by only working with its order. This is the beauty of finite
group theory.

Now we will study the classification of the groups of order 2p where p

is a prime number in the next theorem.

Theorem 6.1

Statement :- Let G be a group and |G|=2 p . Then G is isomorphic to

Z 2 p or D p .

Proof :- By Cauchy’s theorem, G has subgroups of order 2 and p. so, G

has an element G of order 2 and an element b of order p . Note that G
is generated by a and b. since ⟨b⟩ has index 2, it is normal and
−1 k
therefore aba =b for some positive k less than p.
2 k k −1 k
Thus b =( b ) =( aba ) =ab a =a(aba ) .
k k −1 −1

2
2 2
⇒ bk =a ba
2
⇒ bk =b (sin ce|a|=2 )
2
−1
⇒ bk =e

2
⇒ p divides k −1=( k−1 )( k +1 )

Since, 1≤k < p this implies that k-1= 0 or k +1= p . In the first case we

have k =1 and aba =b ⇒ ab=ba . This |ab|=2 p and G is isomorphic to

−1

Z 2 p . In the second case, the 2p elements of G can be written as a j b j

where 0 ≤ j≤1 and 0 ≤ j≤p−1 . Also in this case aba−1=b p−1 .

Thus we have

G= { e , b , b 2 ,. .. , b p−1 , a , ab , ab 2 ,. . ., ab p−1 } and ab=b−1 a ,|a|=2 and |b|= p

Again we know that

D p = {ē , r , r 2 ,. .. . ., r p−1 , s , sr , sr 2 ,. .. . , sr p−1 }

( )
∘
360
where r is a rotation of p in the anticlockwise direction and S is a

reflection. Therefore |r|=p and |s|=2 . Moreover in D p sr=r s .

−1

This it can be clearly observed that the two groups G and D p are only

notationally different. Hence, G≈ D p .

 This completes the proof. (Proved)

Example -6.2 : Prove that a non abelian group of order 34 is

isomorphic to D17.

Solution : Let G be a non-abelian group of order 34. |G|=2×17 where

17 is a prime number. Hence, G≈Z 34 or G≈ D 17 . But, if G≈Z 34 then G is

a cyclic group. Since every cyclic group is an abelian group, we have
that G is an abelian group. But, this is not possible since we are given

that G is non-abelian. therefore, G≈ D 17 . This completes the proof.

(proved)
Theorem -6.2
Statement – If G is a group of order pq, where p and q are primes,
p<q, and p does not divide q-1, then G is cyclic. In particular G is

isomorphic to Z pq .

Proof :- Let H be a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Sylow’s third theorem

states that the number Sylow p-subgroups of G is of the form 1+kp and

divides pq. So, 1+kp=1 , p ,q or pq . From this and the fact that p|(q−1 ) ,

it follows that k =0 and, therefore, H is the only Sylow p-subgroup of

G.

Similarly, there is only one Sylow q-subgroup (say K) of G. Thus

by the corollary to the Sylow’s third theorem, H and K are normal

subgroups of G. Let and H=⟨x⟩ and K=⟨ y⟩ . To show that G is cyclic, it

suffices to show that x and y commute, for then |xy|=|x| |y|= pq . But it
can be observed that since H and K are normal subgroups of G, we
have
 xy x −1 y −1 =( xy x−1 ) y−1 ∈ ky −1=k

Similarly, xy x y =x ( y x y ) ∈ xH=H
−1 −1 −1 −1

But , since H∩K ={ e } , if follows that

xyx−1 y −1 ∈ H∩K ={ e }

⇒ xy ( yx )−1 =e

⇒ xy = yx

This completes the proof. (proved)

Example -6.3 prove that any group ‘G’ of order 33 is cyclic.

Solution :- we have 33 = 3×11

Where 3 and 11 are both prime numbers and 3<11. But 3|10=11−1 .
therefore, by the previous theorem we have G is cyclic.

Example – 6.4 How many Sylow 3-subgroups does a non-cyclic group

of order 21 have?

Solution : - Let G be a non-cyclic subgroup of order 21. Clearly 3/21

2
and 3 |21 . Thus each Sylow 3-subgroup of G contains 3 elements . Let

the total number of Sylow 3-subgroups of G be n3 . By Sylow’s third

theorem, we have n3|21 and n3 =|mod 3 . Hence n3 =1 or n3 =7 . If

possible , let n3 =1 . Let H be the unique Sylow 3-subgroup of G. By

corollary to the Sylow’s third theorem H ⊲ G . Now since 7|21, from

Sylow’s first theorem it follows that there exists a subgroup of G with

order 7. Let the subgroup be K. then HK ≤G ( ∵ H ⊲G ) .

Clearly, |H∩K|={ e }

|H||K| 3×7
( HK )= =
Thus HK ≤G and |H ∩K| 1

⇒ HK ≤G and ( HK )=21= |G|

∴ G=HK

Here, in fact, G is the internal direct product of H and K i.e G=H ×K .

(∵ K is also unique as and hence K ⊲ G)

Now G=H ×K=H ⊕ K

Again H and K are of prime orders and hence they are cyclic. Moreover,
gcd (|H|, |K|)=gcd (3 ,7 )=1 . Therefore, H ⊕ K is also cyclic. ∴ G≈ H ⊕ K is a

cyclic group. But this is absurd. Because, G is non-cyclic. Hence n3 ≠1 .

∴ n3 =7
Hence, the number of Sylow 3-subgroups of G is 7.

Findings and Conclusion :

After studying the previous sections in detail we found the following

important results.

 Cosets of a subgroup of a group partitions the group.

 The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order of
that group. This result is called Lagrange’s theorem.

 Every group of prime order is cyclic.

 A subgroup of index two is a normal subgroup.

 Let G be a finite group of permutations of a set S. Then for any i

from S, |G|=|orbG (i )||stabG (i)| . This result is known as orbit

stabilizer theorem.

 Converse of Lagrange’s theorem is false.

 Let G be a finite abelian group and p be a prime number such

that p ||G| . Then G has an element of order p. this result is known

as Cauchy’s theorem for finite abelian groups.

 The converse of Lagrange’s theorem is true for finite abelian

groups and p-groups.

 Conjugacy is an equivalence relation on a group.

 In a finite group G the number of conjugates of a i.e cl( a) is given

by the formula |cl( a)|=|G:C (a )|.

 We derived the class equation namely |G|=Σ|G :C( a)| .

 Then, we proved that p- groups have non- trivial centers.

2
 We also proved that a group of order p is always abelian provide
that p is a prime number.
 We proved Sylow’s first theorem which state that if G is a finite
k
group and p divides |G| where p is prime. Then, G has a
k
subgroup of order p .

 Let G be a finite group and suppose that a prime number p

divides |G| . then G has an element of order p . This result is

known as Cauchy’s theorem for finite groups.

 We proved that every p-subgroups of a finite group is contained

in some Sylow p-subgroup of G. This result is known as Sylows
second theorem.

 The number Sylow p-subgroup is equal to 1 modulo p and divides

|G|. Furthermore, any two Sylow p-subgroups of G are conjugate.
This result is known as Sylow’s third theorem.

 A unique p-Sylow subgroup of a finite group is a normal subgroup

of G.

 In the Theorem-6.1 we proved that any group order 2 p (p is

prime) is isomorphic to either Z 2 p or D p .

 We found that a sufficient condition for the group of order pq

(p and q are primes with p > q) is q|( p−1 ) .

 Lagrange’s theorem and Sylow theorems are the backbone of finite
group theory having fundamental importance. These theorems are
used not only in finite group theory but also in many branches of
mathematics and physics. These theorems have caused a tremendous
amount of advancements in number theory. These theorems are useful
in providing easy and simple proofs to many mathematical problems.
As per an example, Cauchy’s theorem was first proved by great
French mathematician Cauchy in 1845. His proof was complicated and
ran for nine to ten pages. But, Sylow’s 1 st theorem provides a quick and
easy proof to this theorem. Finite group theory is a very vast subject.
It is new to us. Hence it provides many opportunities to the young
mathematicians of the modern era.

References :

1. John B. Fraleigh, A first course in Abstract Algebra, Narosa

publishing House, New Delhi.

2. Joseph A. Gallian contemporary Abstract Algebra (4 th Edition),

Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi.

3. M. Artin, Abstract Algebra, 2nd Ed., pearson 2011.

4. David S. Dummit and Richard M. Foote, Abstact Algebra, 3 rd Ed.,

John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pvt. Ltd., Singapore, 2004.

5. I.N. Herstein, Topics in Algebra, Wiley Eastern Limited , India,

1975.