Chapter 4
Cellular Metabolism
Introduction
Enzyme-catalyzed metabolic reactions maintain life
Keep cells alive
allow metabolic reactions to proceed quickly enough to maintain life
Information from is required to
construct proteins, including the necessary
enzymes for reactions
A constant supply of energy is needed for
the body’s metabolism
Energy is derived from in
nutrient molecules obtained in the diet
Metabolic Reactions
: larger molecules are synthesized from smaller ones; requires
energy
: larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones; releases
energy
The reactions of metabolism are often
reversible
Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism
Anabolism
Anabolism provides the biochemicals for
growth and repair
Polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids are constructed via
dehydration synthesis:
These reactions occur by , removing a molecule of water to
join two smaller molecules
Dehydration Synthesis: Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids Form a Triglyceride
Triglycerides are the storage form of fats in the body
Catabolism
breaks apart larger molecules into smaller ones (their building blocks)
These reactions occur by
A process by which a molecule of water is split, and its parts are inserted into a larger
molecule to break its chemical bonds
Hydrolysis is responsible for of dietary nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins
Note: The reactions shown under anabolism are reversible; these reactions, when
proceeding to the , represent catabolic reactions
Control of Metabolic Reactions
control the rates of all the metabolic reactions of the cell
This is necessary because the temperature in cells is too low for the reactions to run fast
enough to support life processes
Enzymes are complex proteins that function to lower the of a reaction
so it may begin and proceed more rapidly; enzymes are therefore classified as
Enzymes work in small quantities, and are not used up in the chemical reactions they
catalyze, so they are recycled
and re-used by the cell
Enzyme Action
Each enzyme is ,
acting on only one kind of
molecule, called the
Enzymes recognize their
substrates by their
complementary shapes; the 3-
dimensional structure of an
enzyme that gives it specificity is called its
The binding of an enzyme and its substrate changes the shape of the substrate, so that the
activation energy is , and a reaction occurs
The speed of enzymatic reactions depends on the number of enzyme and substrate
molecules available
At the end of the reaction, the enzyme is , and can be used over by the
cell
Enzymes and Metabolic Pathways
Different enzymes control each chemical reaction in the sequences of cellular metabolism
The enzymes controlling either an anabolic or catabolic sequence of reactions must act in
a specific order
Different enzymes control each chemical reaction in the sequences of cellular metabolism
A sequence of enzymes controlling either an anabolic or catabolic sequence of
reactions
Act in a specific order
Glycolysis
A is a regulatory enzyme that controls the whole
metabolic pathway; usually it is the first enzyme in the series of reactions
Rate-limiting because there is
of enzyme
molecules available
Factors That Alter Enzymes
Some enzymes only become active when they combine with a nonprotein component
called a
May be ions of an element
Small organic cofactors are called
Often vitamins or derived from a vitamin
Enzymes (proteins) can be
Heat
pH extremes
Chemicals
Electricity
Radiation
Some poisons
Enzyme denaturation, like that of other proteins, is irreversible
Energy for Metabolic Reactions
is the capacity to change something or to do work
Common forms of energy include heat, light, sound, electrical energy, mechanical
energy, and chemical energy
Most metabolic reactions use
Cellular Respiration
The first reaction series of cellular respiration
Involves the splitting of a 6-C molecule into
2 molecules of 3-C
Anaerobic
Energy from ATP is used to start the process, but there is a net gain of ATP as a result
After the synthesis of pyruvic acid, there are 2 possibilities:
If O_2 is not present, the pyruvic acid is converted into
If O_2 is present, the pyruvic acid enters the in the
mitochondria
Aerobic Respiration
Pyruvic acid will lose a carbon atom, and join with a
coenzyme to form , which can enter the citric acid cycle
The citric acid cycle generates carbon dioxide, 2 ATP, and high-energy electrons
The takes the high-energy electrons from the other processes,
and generates ~28 ATP from each glucose molecule that enters the pathways:
The electron transport chain is also called
, since it adds
phosphates to ADP to form ATP
Oxygen is the last electron acceptor, and
along with hydrogen, forms H2O
Proteins and fats can also be broken down
by aerobic respiration
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Contains the genetic code, the instructions needed for the synthesis of each protein
(including enzymes) required by the cell
A is a portion of a DNA molecule that contains the genetic information for
making a single protein
The complete set of genetic instructions for an organism is the
The portion of the genome that encodes proteins (about 1.5%) is the
The rest of the genome regulates the activation of genes for protein synthesis
DNA Molecules
Consist of building blocks called
, with bases
extending into the interior of the DNA ladder-
like molecule
The found in DNA nucleotides
are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and
thymine (T)
The DNA molecule twists to form a , and may be millions of base pairs
long
The bases are joined to each other by weak hydrogen bonds
Protein Synthesis
DNA supplies genetic instructions for making proteins
The is the sequence of base pairs in a gene that specifies the order of
amino acids to make a particular protein
An amino acid is represented by a on DNA
In the genetic code, nucleotide sequences also represent “start” and “stop” messages for
each gene
The process of protein synthesis requires two sequential steps:
Transcription
DNA molecules cannot leave the nucleus, but protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm
Therefore, the genetic information is copied onto a molecule of RNA, which can leave the
nucleus
RNA molecules differ from DNA in the following ways: they are single-stranded, contain
ribose rather than deoxyribose, and uracil instead of thymine
The synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in the nucleus, in a sequence
complementary to the DNA template strand, is called transcription
The enzyme RNA polymerase directs the synthesis of mRNA, according to the rules of
complementary base pairing
RNA polymerase also recognizes the beginning and end of a particular gene, and which
DNA strand is the proper one to copy
When the enzyme reaches the end of the gene, it releases the new mRNA strand; this
completes the process of transcription
Translation
Each amino acid corresponds to a three-base sequence of DNA nucleotides; in the
complementary mRNA, this sequence is called a codon
One codon represents a “start” message (at the beginning of a gene), and three represent
“stop” messages (to signal the end of a gene)
mRNA can move out of the nucleus and associate with a ribosome in the cytoplasm, where
the protein will be constructed in a process called translation
In the cytoplasm, another type of RNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), has a three-base sequence of
nucleotides called the anticodon, which is complementary to nucleotides of the messenger
RNA codon. The ribosome holds the mRNA in position, while the tRNA carries in the
correct amino acid in sequence, with anticodons matching up to codons
Since there are 20 different types of amino acids, there are different types of tRNA for each
amino acid
The ribosome contains enzymes needed to join the amino acids together by dehydration
synthesis
As the amino acids are joined to each other, the new protein molecule folds into its unique
shape, or conformation
Protein Synthesis
Organization of the Human Body
Correct protein folding is required for good health, and the functioning of the protein
Misfolded proteins are either refolded or destroyed by spool-shaped structures called
A gene that has been transcribed and translated into a protein is said to be
Gene expression is the basis for cell differentiation