Prophet Muhammad
A View of the Al-Masjid An-Nabwi
Muhammad ibn Abdullah (l. 570-632 CE) is venerated today as the Prophet
of Islam and the “seal of Prophets” by his followers – the Muslims. Muslims
believe that Muhammad was the last – hence the “seal” – of many prophets
before him in Judaism and Christianity such as Adam, Moses, Abraham,
Isaac, Ishmael, Jesus Christ, and others. He was an ordinary person from
Mecca, who (according to Islamic tradition) received a divine revelation
from God and began preaching a new faith in Arabia (between 610-632
CE). Ultimately these revelations would be compiled in the form of a book,
the Quran, after his death.
He was met with stiff resistance from the Meccans, although he did manage
to gather a few converts. What started as a feeble group of followers soon
turned into an empire when he assumed control of the city of Yathrib
(Medina) and began expanding his dominion and his faith
through conquest and politics. By the time of his death, Muhammad had
managed to unite most of the Arabs under the banner of Islam. This empire
would be inherited by his successors – the caliphs of the Islamic world: the
Rashidun caliphs (the first four are referred to as Rashidun which means
“rightly guided”), the Umayyad Dynasty, Abbasid Dynasty, and later the
Ottomans. His empire would spread beyond the borders of Arabia, the faith
would also spread at first through conquest and later through trade and
missionary work, and his initial revelation would become one of the three
great monotheistic religions in the world today.
Early Life
Muhammad was born in 570 CE in the city of Mecca of the Hejaz province
of Arabia. His clan – Hashim, belonged to a respected tribe – Quraish, his
clan (headed by his grandfather – Abd al Mutalib at the time) provided
water to the pilgrims traveling to Mecca. Mecca hosted a variety of idols
and was considered a sacred site focused around the Ka'aba (which is still
considered sacred by the Muslims).
THE ARABS REFERRED TO MUHAMMAD BY
THE NAMES OF “AS-SADIQ” (THE
TRUTHFUL) AND “AL-AMIN” (THE
TRUSTWORTHY).
Muhammad's father, Abdullah, had died while his mother was still pregnant,
and his mother, Aminah, also passed away in 576 CE, when he was just 6
years old. His grandfather, Abd al Mutalib, then took the responsibility of
raising him, but he also died two years later. Muhammad's uncle, Abu Talib
(Abd al Mutalib's son and successor), then devoted his life to raising his
nephew, and it is said that they both loved each other just as a father and a
son would. As he grew up, he became an honest caravan trader (rare in
those days). The Arabs referred to him by the names of “As-Sadiq” (the
truthful) and “Al-Amin” (the trustworthy) and, in fact, it is said that many
would give their wealth to him for safekeeping, even after he began
preaching a faith in which they did not believe.
Marriage with Khadija
When he was 25 years old, a wealthy widow named Khadija (l. 555-620 CE),
sent him with one of her trade caravans for business. She was so impressed
by his honesty, that she sent him a marriage proposal, which he accepted.
Muhammad was bound in matrimony with his first wife (595 CE), a woman
who was 15 years older than him but whose support and companionship
would help him in his mission; he would not take any other wife while he
was married to her, although this was pretty common in Arabia back then.
He later commented about his relationship with his wife:
Allah (God) never gave me a better wife than Khadija. She believed in me at
a time when other people denied me. She put all her wealth at my service
when other people withheld theirs from me. And what's more, Allah gave me
children only through Khadija. (Hadith quoted from Musnad Imam Ahmad
6:118)
The Prophet had two sons and four daughters with Khadija (although Shia
Muslims only consider one daughter – Fatima – to be born from this
marriage); both of his sons died in infancy. Later in his life, Muhammad did
marry other women and had another son, who also died in infancy.
Declaration of Prophethood
As he reached his late thirties, he began worshipping in a cave named
“Hira”, in the mountain “Jabal al-Nour” (Mountain of Light), near Mecca. It
is said that one fateful day, in 610 CE, a light appeared before him and
claimed to be the angel Gabriel who approached him with the first
revelation from God – “Allah”. It is said that Muhammad was initially
perplexed and scared, he ran back home, shivering with fear. It was only
after his wife comforted him and took him to her cousin Warqa (a Christian
scholar), who recognized and told him that he was a prophet, that he
realized the responsibility that had been conferred upon him.
Entrance to the Cave of Hira
Friction with the Meccans
Muhammad began preaching the oneness of God to his family and close
friends; the first convert was his wife Khadija and the first male convert was
his close friend Abu Bakr (l. 573-634 CE). It was after some time (in 613
CE) that he began preaching openly, and he met resistance from the
Meccans. Mecca hosted many idols at the Ka'aba and their economy was
mostly based on pilgrims pouring in from all corners of the Arabian
Peninsula to worship these idols, whom Muhammad considered false gods.
The Meccans went to all lengths, from bribery to physical torture, to stop
him, but he would not give in.
Notwithstanding with Muhammad's growing influence, rival Qurayshite
clans boycotted the Hashim clan (616-619 CE) to force them into
withdrawing their support for Muhammad, which made conditions for
Muhammad and his followers (who are referred to as the “Sahaba” by the
Muslims) quite difficult but, in the end, the boycott was lifted. Scholar
Tamara Sonn elaborates:
Muhammad and his small community were driven from their homes, forced
to live in separate quarters on the outskirts of town, and boycotted. Yet they
preserved in their commitment to follow the guidance of God. They were
instructed to suffer injustice with dignity. (24)
Muhammad faced continual rejection in Mecca and so turned his attention
toward the resort town of Taif in 619 CE. He was initially welcomed there
but the people rejected his message and, in the end, he was forced to run
from the city as a wild mob of street children threw rocks at him, and he
barely made it out of the city alive. According to a famous Muslim legend,
the angel Gabriel appeared to Muhammad afterwards, asking for his
permission to destroy the town, but Muhammad refused, saying that he was
sure that they would convert later on.
His optimism was broken by the death of his uncle Abu Talib and his wife
Khadija, in 619 CE (a year remembered as the “Year of Sorrow” by the
Muslims). Abu Talib's position was taken by another of Muhammad's uncles
– Abu Lahab – who hated him, and lacking any support from his clan,
Muhammad was completely vulnerable.
Migration to Medina
Tired of Meccan persecution, some Muslims had already migrated to
Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 615 CE. But for the Prophet and the bulk of his
followers, a real opportunity for escaping Meccan oppression came in 621
CE, when some citizens of Yathrib (modern-day Medina) invited the Prophet
to their city. Impressed by his message, they wanted the Prophet to act as
their ruler. Muhammad and his companions complied and migrated in
batches to the city.
WITH HIS NEWLY ASSUMED ROLE AS THE
LEADER OF MEDINA, MUHAMMAD BECAME
MORE THAN JUST A PREACHER; HE
BECAME A KING.
Narrowly escaping an attempt on his life, Muhammad left Mecca with his
close friend Abu Bakr and, after a perilous journey with the Meccans
chasing them, they entered Medina in 622 CE. This migration (hegira) is so
important in Islamic history that the Islamic Lunar Calendar considers this
as year 0 AH (After Hegira).
With his newly assumed role as the leader of Medina, Muhammad became
more than just a preacher; he became a king. Medina would soon be turned
into a strong kingdom with standards of justice and unity never before seen
in Arabia. Muhammad revised the law code and unified the city, using a
mixture of persuasion and force of arms (since betrayal was never forgiven
by Arabs who lived by the code of retribution). Scholar Robin Doak
elaborates:
During his 10 years in Medina, Muhammad became more than just a spiritual
leader. He put his administrative and political skills to good use, effectively
acting as the town's leader… Islam was evolving from a religious movement
to a powerful political one. (20)
Muhammad also established a new community worship place – “Al-Masjid
an-Nabwi” (the mosque of the Prophet). The regular activities of preaching
continued but Muhammad now had two distinct advantages over his former
life: political power and an army of devoted supporters.
Battle of Badr & Battle of Uhud
From their newfound base, the Muslims wanted to strike back at their
former oppressors; they started raiding Meccan trade caravans. As the
Meccan economy suffered, their forces united against the Muslims. This
culminated in the Battle of Badr (624 CE), where an army of 1,000 Meccans
ran before 313 Muslims, who had been led to victory by their king
Muhammad (although Muslims saw this as a favor of God).
The Arabs had a strong sense of pride; had the Meccans not struck back
after their defeat at Badr, they would have appeared weak and vulnerable
to their neighbors – a fatal situation in Arabia. The following year, in 625
CE, another huge army was dispatched from Mecca, under the leadership of
Abu Sufyan. He decided not to lay siege to Medina but to draw out the
Muslims in open battle.
Routes of the Badr Campaign, 624 CE
His forces camped near the Mountain of Uhud, from where they began
harassing their foes; this strategy worked and the Muslim army marched
out to face the enemy. Though outnumbered again, the Muslims were
expecting another victory. Initially, the battle went well for the Muslims; the
Meccans deserted the field and fled in panic, leaving behind their camps
with all their supplies.
Seeing the enemy flee and victory just moments away, the rearguard
deserted its position to collect war booty from the camps (against
Muhammad's strict orders). This presented the Meccans with an
opportunity, and their cavalry suddenly struck in a surprise attack on the
Muslims. Caught off-guard, the Muslims suffered severe casualties; even
Muhammad was injured. The Muslims retreated, but the Meccans did not
pursue them. They returned to Mecca, declaring victory.
Battle of Trench
Two years later, the Muslims faced an even greater threat: a confederacy.
Muhammad had banished two Jewish tribes, Banu Qaynuqa and Banu
Nadir; Islamic sources state that they had breached the Treaty of Medina –
a treaty of alliance and non-violence formulated by Muhammad when he
first assumed the role of king. These tribes, alongside other Jewish tribes
from Khaybar (an oasis near Medina, which was a Jewish stronghold in
Arabia), and other minor Arabian tribes allied with the Meccans and
marched towards Medina, with the intent of a siege. The Muslims prepared
for defense by digging a trench around the city to render the confederate
cavalry useless; this strategy was unknown to the Arabs and provided the
Muslims with a huge tactical advantage. The siege of Medina, also referred
to as the Battle of Trench (627 CE), lasted for around 30 days.
Battle of the Trench (627 CE)
The defenders were losing patience as the days went by – and so were the
attackers – so the confederates then made a secret alliance with another
Medinan Jewish tribe, Banu Qurayza (which was neutral, although still
bound by the Treaty of Medina), and the new plan was to attack the
Muslims from two fronts. Muhammad was informed of this and sent men to
defend that front too. Had the simultaneous attack happened, the Muslims
would have been surely defeated, but the Prophet had one last card to play.
Islamic sources report that a respected Arab leader from the confederacy –
Nuaym ibn Masud – was secretly a Muslim who was ordered by Muhammad
to create divisions between the confederate leaders and Banu Qurayza. The
lack of unity, coupled with strong defenses set by the defenders and
worsening weather, forced the attackers to retreat; the Muslims had clearly
won and with minimal casualties.
The tribe of Banu Qurayza was then brought up on charges of betrayal in
violating the peace. Using a verse from the Torah as precedent, a severe
sentence was passed by a Muslim judge and approved by Muhammad: all
men were killed, women and children alongside, and all property seized.
Since then, this event, dubbed as the Massacre of Qurayza, has sparked
incessant debate and discussions. What we do know for certain is that had
the confederate plot succeeded, the fate of the Muslims would have been no
different.
Conquest of Mecca
In 628 CE, when the Muslims wished to go on a pilgrimage (Hajj) to the
Ka'aba, they were denied entry by the Meccans who were fearful of their
growing power but, instead of conflict, the matter was concluded with the
Treaty of Hudaybiyya, which gave the Muslims permission to perform
pilgrimage in the following year (which they did – a mini version of it,
called umrah) and assured safety for the Meccans as well as the Muslims.
With the matter settled with the Meccans, the Muslims marched towards
the Jewish stronghold of Khaybar in 628 CE, whose inhabitants had sided
with the Meccans two years earlier. Khaybar was captured by the Muslims,
but the locals were allowed to remain in their lands under Muslim control.
This trend of keeping local non-Muslims under Muslim overlordship would
continue even after Muhammad's death. Non-Muslims, living in Muslim-
controlled lands, were considered dhimmi or protected people and had to
pay a special tax called the jizya (just as the Muslims paid zakat or alms),
although they did enjoy true religious independence. In some cases, they
would convert to improve their social status or out of actual devotion, while
in other cases, although rarely, forced conversions were also carried out
even though Muhammad had clearly instructed his followers against this.
Within two years, the Meccans breached the Treaty of Hudaybiyya when
they sided with one Arab tribe (Banu Bakr) against another one (Banu
Khuza'a) which was an ally of the Muslims. In 630 CE, the Muslim army
approached Mecca; the doors were opened and the city surrendered.
Muhammad entered Mecca and offered all people amnesty if they took
refuge either in the Ka'aba or Abu Sufyan's house (who had by that time
accepted Islam). He then went on to destroy all of the idols in the Ka'aba,
officially declaring it as the holy site for Islam. It would be here that he
would later on perform his first and last full pilgrimage (or Hajj in 632 CE,
before his death; hence it is also known as the farewell pilgrimage in
Islamic tradition), and it was also where he announced that the divine
revelation – Quran – had been completed.
Death of the Prophet
Another confederacy (of Bedouins) was crushed at the battle of Hunayn
(630 CE), and Muhammad had also sent armies to conquer other important
regions of Arabia. The city of Taif, from whence he had been forced to flee,
submitted to his rule in 631 CE. An attempt to consolidate power over Arab
tribes living under Byzantine rule failed with the Muslim defeat at the
battle of Mu'tah (629 CE) but it gave Muhammad's successors an idea for
their future (successful) endeavors against the Byzantines.
By the time of his death in 632 CE, Muhammad was the most powerful
political leader in the whole of Arabia. Most of the tribes had converted to
Islam, although most of these conversions had political motivation rather
than spiritual. This fact would become quite relevant after Muhammad's
death, as these tribes would separate from the Islamic empire and would
have to be brought back under control. After a brief illness, Muhammad
died peacefully in his own house with his youngest wife, Aisha (Abu Bakr's
daughter), by his side.
Conclusion
Muhammad was a man of exceptional vision and administrative talent who
also commanded armies in battle with incredible skill and charisma without
any prior experience. He endured a great deal of hardship to spread his
message, which he must have believed was the truth given to him by God,
especially since forsaking his path would have meant rewards beyond his
wildest dreams, as the Meccans had promised early on when they were
trying to silence him.
Islamic Conquests in the 7th-9th Centuries
As was the norm of his time, Muhammad married multiple women, after the
death of his first wife. These marriages were mostly meant to cement tribal
alliances, and Muhammad treated his wives with utmost respect and love.
Polygamy may seem unsuitable in the modern era, but we cannot object to
people living according to the norms of their time. Muhammad, though he
had no surviving sons (which was considered necessary for one to be
remembered and for which he was severely mocked in his time) has
nevertheless not been forgotten. Muhammad's name remains to this day
one of the most popular Muslim names worldwide, and his message has
reached an unprecedented number of believers.
Although non-Muslims object to the Muslim insistence that Muhammad not
be rendered in any image, this is important to Muslims who believe that
such images equate with the kind of idolatry Muhammad objected to. Not
having a visual image of Muhammad allows one to interpret the Prophet in
his or her own way and this allows for a more intimate connection with the
founder of the faith. Whenever Muslims in the present day hear, speak,
read, or write his name, they add “peace be upon him”, as a sign of respect
for all he sacrificed in his life to preach the religion of peace.