MODULE 4: Electrical Machines

Contents: DC machines: Principle & Construction, Types, EMF equation of generator and torque
equation of motor, applications of DC motors. Three Phase Induction Motor: Principle &
Construction, Types, Slip-torque characteristics, Single Phase Induction motor: Principle of
operation and introduction to methods of starting, applications. Three Phase Synchronous
Machines: Principle of operation of alternator and synchronous motor.

Construction of DC Machine:-
DC Generator:- Electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
DC Motor: - Electrical machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
A DC machine consists of two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC
machine are described below.
Stator is the stationary part of the machine and rotor is the rotator part of the machine

Yoke or Magnetic frame: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of
cast iron or steel. Yoke serve two purposes, firstly it provides mechanical protection to the outer
parts of the machine secondly it provides low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

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Poles and pole shoes: The pole and pole shoe are fixed on the yoke by bolts.. They carry field winding
and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils and (ii)
spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.

Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole
and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate
North and South poles.

Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry
armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy
current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is
keyed to the shaft.
Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding
can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave
windings are generally used.
Commutator : Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator- brush
arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc machine

1. It provides link between rotating armature conductor and stationary electrical circuit by
brushes.
2. It converts alternating current produced in armature conductors to a unidirectional current in
the external load circuit.

A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of
segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and
the commutator is keyed to the shaft.

Brushes:- Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and
slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the
current.

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EMF EQUATION OF D.C. MACHINE :-

Let

 = flux per pole

P = Total no. of poles

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 Z = Total number of active conductors on the armature

A = No. of parallel paths in the armature winding

For Lap Winding:-- A = P, Wave Winding: -- A = 2

N = speed of rotation of the armature in rpm(revolution per minute)

ωm = speed in radians per second

When the rotor rotates in the field a voltage is developed in the armature.

The flux cut by one conductor in one rotation = P

Time taken to complete one revolution = 𝑵

𝟔𝟎

According to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf induced is given by: - E =𝒅∅
𝒅𝒕

Hence emf induced by one conductor is given by:-E = 𝑷∅𝑵

𝟔𝟎

Total Z no. of conductor connected in series with A parallel path = 𝒁

𝑨

Total emf induced is given by :-E = 𝑷∅𝒁𝑵

𝟔𝟎𝑨

E α ϕN E=kϕN Here k= 𝑷𝒁
𝟔𝟎𝑨

Torque equation of dc machine:-

Electrical input= Mechanical output

[Link] =ω.T

Here E=Input voltage, Ia =Armature current,

ω=Angular velocity(ω=2πn/60), T=Torque

T=[Link]/ω ------- (1)

Because E=PϕZn/60.a and ω=2πn/60

Put the value of E and ω in equation (1),We get

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Classification of DC generator:-

DC generators are classified based on their method of excitation. So on this basis there are two
types of DC generators:-

1. Separately excited DC generator

2. Self-excited DC generator

Self-excited DC generator can again be classified as

1) DC Series generator 2) DC Shunt generator 3) DC Compound generator.

1) Separately excited DC generator: - Dc generator has a field magnet winding which is

excited using a separate voltage source (like battery). You can see the representation in the
below image. The output voltage depends on the speed of rotation of armature and field
current. The higher the speed of rotation and current – the higher the output e.m.f.

2. Self Excited DC Generator

These are generators in which the field winding is excited by the output of the generator itself.
As described before – there are three types of self-excited dc generators – they are

1) Series 2) Shunt 3) Compound.

1. Series DC Generator:-A series DC generator is shown below in fig (a) – in which the
armature winding is connected in series with the field winding so that the field current
flows through the load as well as the field winding. The field winding is a low resistance,
thick wire of few turns. Series generators are also rarely used.

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 Here Ia = Ise = IL

The output voltage is given by:-V=Eg –[Link] - [Link]

V = Eg –Ia.(Ra +Rse)

2. Shunt DC Generator:- A shunt DC generator is shown in figure (b), in which the field
winding is wired parallel to armature winding so that the voltage across both are same. The
field winding has high resistance and more number of turns so that only a part of armature
current passes through field winding and the rest passes through load. It is also called as
constant flux machine. Here Ia = Ish+ IL

The output voltage is given by:- V=Eg –[Link] OR V=[Link]

3. Compound Generator A compound generator is shown in figure below. It has two field
findings namely Rsh and Rse. They are basically shunt winding (Rsh) and series winding (Rse).
Compound generator is of two types – 1) Short shunt and 2) Long shunt

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a) Short shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is wired parallel to armature and series field
winding is connected in series to the load. It is shown in fig (a).

b) Long shunt:- Here the shunt field winding is parallel to both armature and series field
winding (Rse is wired in series to the armature). It is shown in figure (b)

So you have got a basic idea about the types of DC generators! Now you may know that these
generators are used only for special industrial purposes where there is huge demand for DC
production. Otherwise, electrical energy is produced by AC generators and is transmitted from
one place to other as AC itself. When a DC power is required, we usually convert AC to DC using
rectifiers.

Application:- Shunt Generators:

 in electro plating ,for battery recharging , as exciters for AC generators.

Series Generators :

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  As boosters , As lighting arc lamps

Shunt Motor:

 Blowers and fans, Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps, Lathe machines, Milling
machines ,Drilling machines

Series Motor:

 Cranes, Hoists , Conveyors, Trolleys, Electric locomotives

Cumulative compound Motor:

 Rolling mills, Punches, Shears, Heavy planers, Elevators.

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 Three Phase Induction Motor
Three-phase induction motors are the most common machines used in industry.

 simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance.

 wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW
 run essentially as constant speed from zero to full load.
 not easy to have variable speed control

⦿ An induction motor has two main parts

1. STATOR: a stationary part of the motor is known as stator.

 It consist of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core.

 The core, constructed from stacked laminations, having a number of slots,
providing the space for the stator winding.

2. ROTOR: a revolving part of the motor is termed as rotor. It is composed of punched

laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor slots, providing space for the rotor winding.
there are two types of rotor windings used:

a. Wound rotor: conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire, similar to

the winding on the stator
b. Squirrel cage rotor: An aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two
aluminum rings, forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit.

⦿ Two basic design types depending on the rotor design

• squirrel-cage
• wound-rotor

(i) Squirrel cage rotor: It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer periphery.
One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at each end by metal rings called
end rings. This forms a permanently short circuited winding which is indestructible. The entire construction
(bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the name. The rotor is not connected electrically to
the supply but has current induced in it by transformer action from the stator. Those induction motors which
employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage induction motors. Most of 3 phase induction motors use
squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably simple and robust construction enabling it to operate in the most
adverse circumstances. However, it suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the
rotor bars are permanently short-circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the rotor
circuit to have a large starting torque.

(ii) Wound rotor: It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3-phase winding, similar to the one
on the stator .The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually star-connected. The open
ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft
with one brush resting on each slip ring. The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected
rheostat . At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting torque.
These resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.

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Principle of operation:-

When three phase ac supply is connected to 3 phase stator winding. A rotating magnetic
field is produced in the air gap, rotating with a speed Ns= 120f/P. Where f is the supply
frequency and P is the no. of poles and Ns is called the synchronous speed in rpm. This
rotating magnetic field cuts the stationary rotor conductor and produces an induced
voltage in the rotor windings

Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, so induced current flows in
the rotor winding. According to Lenz's law this current tries to oppose the cause due to
which it is produced, since the cause is relative motion between rotating magnetic field
and stationary rotor conductor. So rotor starts rotating in same direction in which
magnetic field rotate. The torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two
magnetic fields

ind  kBR  Bs
Where ind is the induced torque and BR and BS are the magnetic flux densities of

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 the rotor and the stator respectively.

[Link] the Induction motor runs at the synchronous speed, why?

No, Induction motor does not run at synchronous speed. If rotor runs at the synchronous
speed, which is the same speed of the rotating magnetic field, then the rotor will appear
stationary to the rotating magnetic field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the
rotor. So, no induced current will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic flux will be
produced so no torque is generated and the rotor speed will fall below the synchronous
speed. When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor windings and a
torque is produced.

Slip:-

⦿ The Induction motor will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed
⦿ The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called the Slip. It
is always expressed in percentage.

S = Ns – Nr

S = (Ns – Nr)/ Ns ; Where Ns = 120f/P

Where S = slip

Ns = Synchronous speed or speed of the magnetic field

Nr = speed of the motor.

The rotor current frequency or rotor frequency (fr) is given by

Fr = s.f Hz

Notice that: if the rotor runs at synchronous speed s = 0 if the rotor is stationary s = 1

Note: the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units

Torque-slip characterstics:-

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information about the variation of
torque with the slip.

Nr = Ns(1- s)
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At starting, Nr =0 & s=1. the starting torque will act on motor.
When Nr = Ns & s=0, Torque act on motor will be zero.
Torque-slip characteristic curve can be divided into three regions
⦿ Low slip region (T α s)
⦿ Medium slip region
⦿ High slip region (T α 1/s)
The maximum torque is independent of the rotor resistance.
⦿ The motor will produce maximum torque, when slip s = R2/X20.

⦿ Motoring Mode
In this mode of operation, the motor always rotates below the synchronous speed. The slip
varies from zero to one. It is zero at no load and one at standstill. From the curve it is seen
that the torque is directly proportional to the slip i.e. more is the slip, more will be the
torque produced and vice-versa.

⦿ Generating Mode
In this mode of operation induction motor runs above the synchronous speed. The torque and
slip both are negative so the motor receives mechanical energy and deliverselectrical energy.

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 Single Phase Induction Motor
Principle:-

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When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor,
the alternating current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating
current produces an alternating flux called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor
conductors and hence cut the rotor conductors.
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As
the rotor circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the
rotor current. This rotor current produces its flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is produced
due to the transformer action in opposite direction as of stator flux. Thus stator flux (Φ s) always
opposes rotor flux (Φr) in the same axis.
The torque angle between stator flux (Φs) and rotor flux (Φr) is 1800 , hence no starting torque
is developed.

T=Φs. Φ[Link] (1800)

Thus Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting.

Double revolving field theory:-

According to double field revolving theory, we can resolve any alternating quantity into two
components. Each component has a magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of
the alternating quantity, and both these components rotate in the opposite direction to each
other. For example – a flux, φ can be resolved into two components

Each of these components rotates in the opposite direction i.e. if one Φm /2 is rotating in a
clockwise direction then the other Φm / 2 rotates in an anticlockwise direction.
When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor,
it produces its flux of magnitude, Φm. According to the double field revolving theory, this
alternating flux, Φm is divided into two components of magnitude Φm /2. Each of these
components will rotate in the opposite direction, with the synchronous speed, Ns.
Let us call these two components of flux as forwarding component of flux, Φ f and the backward
component of flux, Φb. The resultant of these two components of flux at any instant of time gives
the value of instantaneous stator flux at that particular instant.

Now at starting condition, both the forward and backward components of flux are exactly
opposite to each other. Also, both of these components of flux are equal in magnitude. So, they
cancel each other and hence the net torque experienced by the rotor at the starting condition is
zero. So, the single phase induction motors are not self-starting motors.

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Methods for Making Single Phase Induction as Self Starting Motor

From the above topic, we can easily conclude that the single-phase induction motors are not
self-starting because the produced stator flux is alternating in nature and at the starting, the two
components of this flux cancel each other and hence there is no net torque. The solution to this
problem is that if we make the stator flux rotating type, rather than alternating type, which
rotates in one particular direction only. Then the induction motor will become self-starting.
Now for producing this rotating magnetic field, we require two alternating flux, having some
phase difference angle between them. When these two fluxes interact with each other, they will
produce a resultant flux. This resultant flux is rotating in nature and rotates in space in one
particular direction only.

Once the motor starts running, we can remove the additional flux. The motor will continue to
run under the influence of the main flux only. Depending upon the methods for making
asynchronous motor as Self Starting Motor, there are mainly four types of single phase
induction motor namely,
1. Split phase induction motor,
2. Capacitor start inductor motor,
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,
4. Shaded pole induction motor.
5. Permanent split capacitor motor or single value capacitor motor.

Starting methods of single phase induction motor:-

The single-phase induction motor is started by using some methods. Mechanical methods are
not very practical methods that are why the motor is started temporarily by converting it into a
two-phase motor. Single-phase induction motors are classified according to the auxiliary means
used to start the motor. They are classified as follows:

1. Split-phase motor

2. Capacitor-start motor

3. Capacitor-start capacitor-run motor

4. Permanent-split capacitor (PSC) motor

5. Shaded-pole motor

1. Split-phase induction motor:

The split-phase induction motor is also known as a resistance-start motor. It consists of a

single-cage rotor, and its stator has two windings, the main winding and a starting (also known
as an auxiliary) winding. Both the windings are displaced by 90° in space like the windings in a

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two-phase induction motor. The main winding of the induction motor has very low resistance
and high inductive reactance. Thus the current I M in the main winding lags behind the supply
voltage V by nearly 900.

Figure: Split-phase induction motor (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

The starting winding has highly resistive and low inductive reactance. Thus I A nearly in phase
with supply voltage. Thus there is time difference between the currents in the two windings.
This phase difference is enough for producing rotating magnetic field. As motor reaches 70
-80 per cent of synchronous speed, starting winding disconnects from main winding using
centrifugal switch.

Applications:

Split-phase motors are most suitable for easily started loads where the frequency of starting is
limited, and these are very cheap.

1. These motors are used in washing machines.

2. These are used in Air conditioning fans.

3. Used in food mixers, grinders, floor polishers, blowers, centrifugal pumps,

4. These are used in small drills, lathes, office machinery, etc.

5. Sometimes they are also used for drives requiring more than 1kW.

Capacitor motors:

Capacitor motors are the motors that have a capacitor in the auxiliary winding circuit to
produce a greater phase difference between the current in the main and auxiliary windings.
There are three types of capacitor motors.

2. Capacitor-start motor:

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In this motor capacitor is connected in series with starting winding. The capacitor-start motor
develops a much higher starting torque, i.e. 3.0 to 4.5 times the full-load torque. To obtain a high
starting torque, the value of the starting capacitor must be large, and the resistance of starting
winding must be low. Because of the high VAr rating of the capacitor required, electrolytic
capacitors of the order of 250 µF are used. The capacitor Cs is short-time rated. As motor
reaches 70-80 % of rated speed , starting winding with capacitor automatically disconnected.
These motors are more costly than split-phase motors because of the additional cost of the
capacitor.

Figure: Capacitor start motor (a) circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

Applications:

1. These motors are used for heavy loads where frequent start required.

2. These motors are used for pumps and compressors, so these are used as a compressor
in the refrigerator and air conditioner.

3. They are also used for conveyors and some machine tools.

3. Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor:-

This motor has a cage rotor, and its stator has two windings namely the main winding and the
auxiliary winding. The two windings are displaced 90 in space. The motor use two capacitors Cs
and CR. Capacitor CS is called starting capacitor and it is high value capacitor. It disconnects after
reaching rated [Link] is called running capacitor of low value and connected throughout the
operation. In the initial stage, the two capacitors are connected in parallel.

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Applications:

1. Two value capacitor motors are used for loads of higher inertia that requires frequent
start.

2. These are used in pumping equipment.

3. These are used in refrigeration, air compressors, etc.

4. Permanent-split Capacitor (PSC) motor:

These motors have a cage rotor, and its rotor consists of two windings namely, the main
winding and the auxiliary winding. The single-phase induction motor has only one capacitor C
which is connected in series with the starting winding. The capacitor C is permanently
connected in series with the starting winding. The capacitor C is permanently connected in the
circuit at starting and running conditions.

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Advantages: A single-value capacitor motor has the following advantages:

1. In this type of motor, no centrifugal switch is required.

2. This motor has higher efficiency.

3. It has higher power-factor because of a permanently-connected capacitor.

4. It has higher pull-out torque.

Limitations of permanent-split capacitor motor:

1. Electrolytic capacitors cannot be used for continuous running. Therefore, paper-spaced

oil-filled type capacitors are to be used. Paper capacitors of the same rating are larger in
size and more costly.
2. A single-value capacitor has a low starting torque usually less than full-load torque.

Applications:

1. These motors are used for fans and blowers in heaters.

2. It is used in air conditioners.

3. It is used to drive refrigerator compressors.

4. It is also used to operate office machinery.

5. Shaded pole motor:

A shaded-pole motor is a simple type of self-starting single-phase induction motor. It consists of

a stator and a cage-type rotor. The stator is made up of salient poles. Each pole is slotted on the
side, and a copper ring is fitted on the smaller part. This part is called the shaded pole. The ring
is usually a single-turn coil and is known as shading coil.

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 Figure: Shaded-pole motor with two stator poles.

Applications:

1. Shaded-pole motors are used to drive devices which require low starting torque.

2. These motors are very suitable for small devices like relays, fans of all kinds, etc.
because of their low initial cost and easy starting.

3. The most common application of these motors is in table fans, exhaust fans, hair dryers,
fans for refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, electronic equipment, cooling
fans, etc.

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 Synchronous machine

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WORKING PRINCIPLE:

Synchronous motor is doubly excited machine. The stator winding is excited with 3 phase A.C supply and
rotor winding with D.C supply respectively. When a three-phase supply is given to the stator of a three-
phase wound synchronous motor, a rotating field is set up in the air gap which rotates at synchronous
speed (Ns = 120f/p). This is represented by the imaginary stator poles.
The synchronous motor works on the principle of magnetic locking. The operating principle can be
explained with the help of a 2-Pole synchronous machine with the following steps.

Let us consider a two-pole synchronous motor as shown in Figure. The three-phase supply is provided to
the stator which induces two poles i.e North pole and the South pole on Stator. Since the supply in the
stator is alternating in nature, therefore, its polarity changes in every half cycle, thus the poles of stator
also changes after every half cycle.

The synchronous motor rotor is energized by the DC current. The field current (D.C Current) of the motor
produces a steady-state magnetic field. Since the polarity of D.C current is fixed therefore the poles of
rotor don’t vary.

Therefore, there are two magnetic fields present in the machine. Stator poles changes in every half-
cycle whereas rotor poles remain the same.
Step 1. When a three-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced in
the stator.

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Step 2.
 Due to the Rotating Magnetic field, let the stator poles i.e North poles (Ns) and South
Poles (Ss) rotate with synchronous speed.
 At a particular time stator pole, Ns coincides with the rotor poles Nr and SS coincides
with Sr i.e like poles of the stator and rotor coincide with each other.
 As we know, like poles experience a repulsive force. So rotor poles experience a
repulsive force Fr. Let us assume that the rotor tends to rotate in the anti-clockwise
direction as shown in Fig. (i).

Step-3.
 After half cycle, the polarity of the stator pole is reversed, whereas the rotor poles
cannot change their polarity as shown in Fig. (ii).
 Now unlike poles of rotor and Stator coincide with each other and rotor experiences the
attractive force fa and the rotor tends to rotate in the clockwise direction.
 In brief, we can say, with the rotation of stator poles the rotor tends to drive in the
clockwise and anti-clockwise direction in every half cycle.
 Hence, to and fro motion is excited on the rotor and as a result, the rotor does not rotate.
As a result, the average torque on the rotor is zero. Hence the 3-phase synchronous
motor is not a self-starting motor.
Application:-
1. For constant speed application.
2. For improving power factor of substation.

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