Chapter 9
Seismic waves are:
messengers that convey information about the earth's interior.
Basically, these waves test the extent to which:
earth materials can be stretched or squeeze somewhat as you can squeeze a sponge.
They cause the particles of:
material to vibrate, which means that these particles are temporarily stretched out of position as they
move back and forth.
The capacity of a material to be temporarily deformed by:
passing seismic waves can be described by its properties of elasticity as discussed in previous lecture.
Seismic Waves can be used to:
distinguish different materials- They influence the speeds of seismic waves through those materials, and
the different kinds of seismic waves that can travel in these materials.
Seismic waves carry with them much of the energy released by the:
earthquake and dissipate it throughout the Earth.
As they do so, they can produce:
considerable damage and/or death at the Earth’s surface.
Seismic Waves, disturbances generated by an:
earthquake (or an explosion near the Earth’s surface), which propagate through the Earth.
Surface waves:
Other waves are restricted in their travel to a zone close to the Earth’s surface.
Earthquakes emit waves in all directions:
some of which will pass through the Earth’s interior (that is, through the body of the Earth) and are
called Body waves.
Types of Seismic Waves:
[Link] waves:
Primary Wave (P-wave).
Shear Wave, (S-Wave).
[Link] Waves:
Rayleigh Wave
Love-Wave
P-Wave
The particles vibrate backwards and forwards along the direction in which the:
wave is traveling, causing the rock to become alternately compressed and extended.
These waves are known as:
longitudinal, primary, or P waves.
All the frequencies contained within body waves travel through a:
given material at the same velocity depends on the consistency of the elastic moduli and density of the
medium through which the waves are propagating.
k 4μ 3
1
2
Vp ( )
ρ
From this equation it could be notice that:
P-waves will travel through any kind of substance - solid, liquid or gas.
P-Wave velocity in different material:
Material Volume ( m / s )
Air 330
Water 1450-1530
Petroleum 1300-1400
Soil 300-600
Clay 1000-2500
Sandstone 1400-4500
Limestone (soft) 1700-4200
Granites 4600-6200
Basalts 5500-6500
S-Wave
transverse, secondary, or S-waves:
The particles vibrate at right angles to the direction in which the wave is traveling - either upwards and
downwards, side-to-side, or both - distorting the rock in those directions.
Shear velocity depends on the:
consistency of the elastic moduli and density of the medium through the waves are propagating.
V s
From this equation it could be notice that S-waves will travel through:
solid substance as =0 for liquids and gases.
Body waves travel at different speeds:
in different types of rock, but within a given type of rock, P waves usually travel at about twice the
speed of S waves.
V 1
p
1
V s 2
The ratio Vp/Vs is defined in terms of Poisson’s ratio () and is given by:
The corresponding Table shows the main differences between the S & P-Waves.
Comparison S wave P wave
speed Intermediates Fastest
Amplitude Intermediates Smallest
Period Intermediates Shortest
Medium Only solids Soild, liquid, gas
Seismic waves are useful in:
determining the location of Earthquakes.
Most important lyseismic waves provide:
a tool for probing Earth’s interior.
As body and surface waves move through the Earth, they:
(surface waves) gradually attenuate and ultimately die out so their size, or amplitude, decreases as the
distance from the earthquake increases.
For surface waves, the amplitude also:
decreases rapidly with depth in the Earth; a phenomenon known as “Wave dispersion”.
Surface waves generally travel:
slower than body waves, but wave speeds are highly variable.
Love wave
In Love waves, named after:
Augustus Love, a British geophysicist.
The particles vibrate from:
side to side as in one of the S-wave modes.
Love waves occur only where a:
medium with a low S-wave velocity overlies a layer with a higher S-wave velocity.
Named after Rayleigh, (1842-1919):
British physicist, and Nobel laureate.
In Rayleigh waves the particles move in:
vertical ellipses that lie in the direction of wave travel.
Rayleigh waves can travel only:
through a solid medium.
Rayleigh waves are characterized by:
large-amplitude-low frequency and are called “ground roll” which can mask reflections on a seismic
record and are thus considered to be noise.
Seismic surveys can be conducted in such a way as to:
minimize ground roll, which can be further reduced by filtering during later data processing.
Types of Earthquakes:
1. Shallow Earthquakes: From the surface to a depth of 33Km. They are the most destructive ones.
2. Intermediate Depth Earthquakes: the depth between 33-300Km.
3. Deep Earthquake: the depth between 300-700 Km.
Earthquakes release:
accumulated strain by the sudden displacement of faults.
Elastic Rebound Theory:
energy can be stored in elastically deformed rock, earthquakes release that stored energy and the rock
returns to its undeformed state.
Seismology:
the study of earthquakes.
Seismographs
are used to observe and record earthquake motion and vibrations.
Why is Seismology Important?
Study of earthquakes and issuing tsunami warnings.
Detection of atomic explosions for verification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty.
Investigations of certain accidents, like the sinking of the submarine Kursk August 2000.
Earthquake Focus:
The location where seismic energy is first released.
Epicenter:
the point on the surface directly above the focus.
Travel Time of Seismic Waves:
Travel times of p- and s-waves differ.
The difference in the velocity of P and S waves used to calculate the distance to an earthquake
focus.
Locating an Earthquake:
The distance from each station to the earthquake is plotted.
The intersection of three or more circles shows the location of the epicenter.
Much of the calculation is now automated to give preliminary estimates of magnitude and
location.
Earthquake Damages:
Ground motion due to seismic waves.
Fault rupture of the ground surface.
Fire.
Mass-wasting.
Liquefaction.
Tsunami.