Introduction to Surveying Academic year; 2024

Chapter Three
LEVELING
4.1. Introduction
Leveling is a method of surveying used for determination of the difference of elevations or levels of
various points on the surface of the earth. The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below
a reference level, called datum. The most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (M.S.L)
Leveling is an important method of surveying for many engineering works and construction projects.
Leveling is needed for the design of highways, railways, and canals etc. and for locating the gradient lines.
The results of leveling can be used to determine the catchments area, volume of the reservoir.
4.1.1 Principle of direct leveling
When the leveling instrument has been properly leveled, the bubble tube axis and the line of sight are
horizontal and the vertical axis of the instrument is truly vertical. When the telescope of the instrument is
rotated, the line of sight remains in the horizontal plane.
In practice, the leveling instrument is set up at a convenient position, and the one staff is kept at a point of
known elevation. The reading is taken on the staff and the level of the line of sight is determined. Then
the 2nd staff is kept on the point of the unknown elevation and a reading is taken. The level of the point
is determined from the level of the line of sight already computed and from the 2nd staff reading.
4.1 Technical terms used in leveling
The following terms are commonly used in leveling.
1. Station. The station is the point where the staff is held for taking reading (observation) from a
leveling instrument.
N.B The point where the instrument is set up is not important so far the booking of the readings in a level
field book is concerned.
2. Height of the instrument. (H.I). It is the elevation of the line of sight with respect to the datum.
It should be noted that the height of instrument is not the height of the line of sight above the
ground where the leveling instrument is set up.
3. Back sight (B.S.) It is the reading taken on a staff held at point of known elevation or at the point
whose elevation has already been determined. The back sight is usually the first reading taken
after setting up the instrument. The back sight is taken on a bench Mark (B.M) for the first setting
of the instrument and on a turning point (T.P.) for the subsequent settings because the level of
turning point can be determined before the shifting of the instrument.
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4. Fore sight (F.S.). It is the reading taken on the staff either held at the last point whose elevation
is required or held at the turning point just before shifting the instrument.
5. Turning point. (T.P.) For leveling over a long distance, the instrument has to be set up a number
of times. A turning point is the point selected on the route before shifting the instrument.
The turning point should be selected on a firm ground or rock.

BACK SIGHT FORE SIGHT

T.P.(TURNING POINT)
B.M.

Setup

6. Intermediate sight. (I.S.). It is the reading taken on a staff held at point whose elevations is
required, but which is not a turning point or the last point.
7. Balancing of sight. To reduce the effect of instrumental and other errors, the distance of the point
where a back sight is taken and the distance of the point where a fore sight is taken, as measured
from the instrument station, should be approximately equal. This is known as balancing of sights.
4.2 Different methods of leveling
A. Differential leveling and procedures
Differential leveling is required for the determination of the difference of elevation of two points,
which are quite apart. A number of setting ups of the instrument are required in differential
leveling. As in fig. below, BM1 represents a point of known elevation (benchmark) and BM2
represents a benchmark to be established some distance away. It is desired to determine the
elevation of BM2. The level is placed in such a location that a clear rod reading is obtainable, but
no attempt is made to keep on the direct line joining BM1 and BM2. A back sight is taken on BM1.
The rod-man chooses a turning point TP1 at some convenient spot within the range of the telescope
along the general route BM1 to BM2. It is desirable, but not necessary, that each foresight distance
as I1–TP1 is approximately equal to its corresponding back sight distance as BM1-I1. The chief
requirement is that the turning point shall be a stable object at an elevation and in a location
favorable to a rod reading of the required precision.

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The rod is held on a turning point and a fore sight is taken. The observer then set up the instrument
at some favorable point as I2 and takes a back sight to the rod held on the turning point TP1.
Then the rod-man establishes the second turning point TP2 and the observer takes a fore sight.
The process is repeated until finally a foresight is taken on the terminal point BM2.
To check whether there is an error or not the leveling work should always be started from a known
point and should be finished at a known point. The leveling field book should be checked
immediately in the field.
H.I.

H.I.=1681.444
H.I.

Line of sight
2.101 1.021
1.000 3.221

1.244 0.662 T.P.2

I3
I2
T.P.1 B.M.2
I1
B.M.1
Elevation of B.M.1 = 1680.20

B. Profile leveling and procedures

The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured intervals along a fixed line is
called profile leveling. The need of profile leveling arises during the location and construction of
highways, railroads, canal, and sewers.
2.811
1.021
0.241

0.361

3.440

2.012
2.988

2.000
2.011
2.144
3.661

B.M.3

I1 T.P.2
I2
T.P.1

The above Fig illustrates the steps in leveling for profile. The instrument is set up in some
convenient location not necessarily on the line (as at I1) and the rod is held on benchmark (BM3).
A back sight is taken and the height of instrument is obtained as in differential leveling. Readings
are then taken with the rod held on the ground at successive stations along the line. These rod
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readings, being for points of unknown elevation, are foresights regardless of whether they are in
front or ahead of the level.
They are frequently designated as intermediate sights to distinguish them from foresights taken
on turning points or benchmarks. The intermediate sights subtracted from the height of the
instrument give ground elevations of stations. When the rod has been advanced to a point beyond
which further readings to ground points cannot be observed, a turning point (TP1) is selected and
a foresight (3.440m) is taken to establish its elevation. The level is set up in an advanced position
(I2) and a back sight (2.988m) is taken on the turning point (TP1) just established. Rod readings on
ground points are then continued as before.
Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has to be held vertically!

C. Reciprocal leveling

When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible to balance the back sight and foresight
distances, it is necessary to take sights much longer than permissible. Under such a measurement errors
due to curvature and refraction become significant. To obtain the best results we should have to use the
procedure termed as reciprocal leveling.

level surface level surface

c d a b

BM1 BM1 A
water A water

set up 2 set up 1

The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by leveling from BM1. At a set up near BM1, a back
sight is taken on BM1 a fore sight on A. The difference in elevation is computed as (BS – FS). Next, the
level is set up near point A.

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Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains constant during the time between the two set ups, the correct
differences in elevation is computed as the mean of the two measured differences.

El of A =
(a − b) + (c − d ) + El of BM1
2

4.3 Level field books and arithmetic check

A level field book or a level book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points on the
surface of the earth. There are a lot of methods for reducing the levels. The surveyor should select the level
book according to the method of reduction he proposes to use.

The following table shows a page of the more generalized level book.

Observer:_________Instrument:_________Project:_______Date:________ Page:______

Point Back Inter mediate sight Fore sight ∆h Elevation Remarks

sight
1 3 4 5 6 7
2

BM1 a 1000

TP1 b

TP2 d

BM.2 f

B.S= F.S=

After the level field book has to be filled and checked the procedure is as follows.

1. Sum up all back sight and fore sight-readings.

2. Calculate the height deference between the end and the starting point, which is nominal h.

3. Calculate the difference between BS and FS (actual h)

4. Determine the error of closure (nominal h – actual h)

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5. Distribute the error to the bigger back sight.

6. Calculate all h`s following the way of subtraction indicated by an arrow.

7. Sum up all h`s

8. Check whether h is equal to the value in step 2 (actual h) (First check).

9. Add each h to the previous elevations.

10. At the end you will get the elevation of B.M.2

The above level field book contains seven columns. The first column indicates the point (station) at which
the staff is placed. The second column is for the back sight-readings (BS) and the fourth column is for the
fore sight-readings. The field book illustrates differential leveling, the back sight-reading for the station
BM 1 is “a”. The elevation of BM 1 is 1000m. The fives column is the difference in elevation between
points.

4.4 Sources of error in leveling

Curvature and Refraction

The nature of the earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction affect leveling operations. The magnitude
of the curvature C in relation to the radius R of the earth and the tangent distance d can be derived as
follows:
d

a) Curvature B'

C
(R+C) 2 = R2+d2 B

level line
 R2+2RC+C2 = R2 +d2
earths surface
R
C is very small when compared with R so

d2
C =
2R
, R=6370km

 d2   2 
C = km  C =  d  1000  m = 0.0785  d 2
 12740   12740 
   

b) Refraction

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Refraction will cause the line of sight to be deflected downward by a small angle. Pressure, temperature,
latitude, humidity affect refraction and its value is not constant. Its value is taken as 1/7 curvature, or 14%
of the curvature of the earth, and is opposite in effect to that of curvature.

c) Combined correction

Combined correction =
1
(
0.0785  d 2 −  0.0785  d 2
7
)
6
= 7
(
 0.0785  d 2 )
C & R = 0.0673 d2 meters d is distance in km, and the result must be in m.

If the distance d is smaller than 120m curvature and refraction errors are negligible. The error introduced
by this source can be completely eliminated by balancing the back sight (BS) and fore sight (FS) distances.

4.5 Difficulties in leveling

1. Staff station above the line of sight

2. Staff station much below the line of sight

3. Staff to near the instrument

If the staff is too near the instrument, the graduations are not visible. If not visible, move a sheet of white
paper up or down on the staff, until its one edge is bisected by the line of sight. Read the staff corresponding
to the edge of the paper with naked eyes and note the staff reading.

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Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes
Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes by

• Carefully adjusting and manipulating both instrument and rod.

• Establishing standard filed methods and routines.

• The following routines prevent most large errors or quickly

• disclose mistakes:

• Checking the bubble before and after each reading.

• Using a rod level.

• Keeping the horizontal lengths of plus and minus sights equal.

• Making the usual field-book arithmetic checks

Suggestion for good leveling

• Fixing tripod legs correctly
• Check the bubble level before and after each reading
• Take as little time as possible between BS and FS
• Try to keep the distance to the BS and the FS equal
• Keep fore sight and back sight distances as equal as possible
• Keep lines of sight short (normally < 50m)
• Never read below 0.5m on a staff (refraction)
• Use stable, well-defined turning points
• Beware of shadowing effects and crossing waters.

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Exercise

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