The transition from a one-party dominant system to a multi-party system in India involved several distinct phases. Initially, the Indian National Congress dominated the political landscape, a period described as the 'Congress System,' where intra-party and inter-party competition coexisted within the Congress's broad coalition . The mid-1970s marked the beginning of challenges to this dominance, leading to periods of exclusion and closure under the Congress System, particularly during Indira Gandhi's tenure . The political landscape shifted fundamentally in the late 1970s when the Janata Party came into power, introducing a two-party system that gradually paved the way for more significant political fragmentation . The differentiating factors, such as Mandal (affirmative action), Mandir (Hindu nationalism), and Market (economic reforms), further altered the support bases and led to the emergence of regional parties, signaling a shift towards a multi-polar political framework . This was characterized by a Coalition Era, where regional parties often became crucial to forming central governments, leading to a multi-party system. The BJP's rise in 2014 marked a potential return to a dominant-party system, replacing Congress as the central player .

The evolution from a closed one-party system to a reconfigured political competition profoundly impacted social and political alignments in India. During the period of Indira Gandhi's leadership, the Congress consolidated its position by focusing on poverty as a mobilization theme, leading to a class-based appeal that tried to overshadow regional and caste-based cleavages . However, as challenges to Congress's dominance mounted, primarily due to its inability to accommodate dissent and emerging regional interests, political space opened up for new narratives and entities . The introduction of the Janata Party in 1977 marked a pivotal change, leading to a two-party system and providing the foundation for further reconfiguration as new parties emerged to represent various social groups, notably those aligned with Mandal (affirmative action) and Mandir (Hindu identity). This transition diversified political competition, forcing parties to realign their strategies and form new coalitions to cater to a broader spectrum of social identities and interests .

The BJP's organizational restructuring and social coalition-building played crucial roles in its emergence as a dominant party by 2014. The party transformed itself structurally by shifting from a cadre-based model, which focused on elite leaders and limited grassroots outreach, to a mass party model emphasizing extensive membership recruitment and voter base expansion . The BJP's strategic inclusion of diverse social groups in its electoral agenda, especially through the distribution of party tickets to members of OBCs and creating alliances with regional parties, helped build broad-based social coalitions essential for gaining electoral support across heterogenous demographics . Furthermore, the party leveraged strong leadership, particularly around Narendra Modi, to present a cohesive and appealing narrative that resonated with upper and lower social strata, thereby consolidating its position as a central figure in Indian politics .

The primary factors contributing to the Congress's dominance in the initial decades post-India's independence included its historical role in the independence movement, broad ideological appeal, and inclusive political strategy that sought to represent a wide array of social interests, encapsulating diverse factions within the party . Rajni Kothari described this structure as the 'Congress System,' which allowed both intra-party and limited inter-party competition under a broad consensus model . Over time, however, these factors changed; internal fissures grew as the party struggled to manage dissent and adapt to emerging socio-political identities based on caste, regionalism, and economic liberalization. The inability to integrate these evolving dynamics led to a decline in its coherent narrative, making room for the rise of regional parties and alternative national parties like the BJP . Additionally, the erosion of centralized leadership and lack of adaptive strategies to address new socio-economic challenges led to the diminishing electoral base of Congress over several decades .

The political issues of Mandal, Mandir, and Market played pivotal roles in differentiating political competition in India during the late 20th century. The Mandal Commission's recommendations for affirmative action created a significant shift by mobilizing Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and led to new political alignments and social cleavages based on caste . The Ram Mandir issue, promoted by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), emphasized Hindu nationalist identity politics, drawing support primarily from upper caste and class Hindus and reshaping the BJP's support base . Meanwhile, economic reforms involving Liberalisation, Privatisation, and Globalisation changed economic priorities, fostering a new market-oriented political discourse. These issues collectively altered the traditional caste and class dynamics, leading to the rise of regional leaders and new political identities .

The decline of Congress led to both new political opportunities and challenges in India. The weakening of Congress provided opportunities for regional and smaller parties to fill the political vacuum, allowing them to represent specific social, regional, and cultural interests that were previously underrepresented . This shift democratized the political space, leading to a multi-party system where coalition politics became prevalent, allowing for more diverse representation and accountability in governance . However, it also introduced challenges, such as political instability due to fragmented mandates and the need for forming complex alliances, resulting in coalition governments that often found it difficult to maintain cohesion and implement consistent policies. This fragmentation made governance challenging at both state and national levels, as managing diverse coalition partners required constant negotiation and compromise .

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) transformed itself from a cadre party into a mass party by adopting several strategic measures. It initially focused on widening its voter base through 'electoral engineering' by accommodating various social groups, including Dalits and Muslims, thus broadening its appeal beyond its original Hindu nationalist identity . The BJP's distribution of party tickets to members of Other Backward Classes (OBC) was a key step in securing support from these demographic segments. Additionally, transitioning from a cadre structure, which is typically limited in its outreach, the BJP moved towards a mass party model, emphasizing broad membership and public engagement, thus increasing its electoral footprint . This strategic transformation helped it penetrate new electoral regions, including the tribal areas in the north-east, and contributed to its success in securing a parliamentary majority in 2014, signifying a potential shift towards a new dominant-party system in India .

Political scientists are divided regarding the implications of the BJP's electoral victory in 2014. Some argue that the BJP, by winning a single-party majority in the Lok Sabha, indicated a paradigm shift towards a new dominant-party system, similar to the Congress's role during the 'Congress System' era . They suggest that the BJP has become the system-defining party, replacing the Congress as the central pole around which political alignments occur. Others, however, caution that this victory may not necessarily signal a permanent realignment, citing India's history of coalition politics from 1989 to 2014, which saw multiple alliances being formed due to fragmented voter support and the regionalization of politics . The BJP's ascent, however, introduced debates about whether India's political system was transitioning away from fragmentation and coalition dependency to re-entering a phase of dominant-party politics .

Coalition politics significantly influenced the functioning and power dynamics of state governments in India between 1989 and 2014. As regional parties gained prominence and began playing pivotal roles in state and national coalitions, state governments increasingly demanded greater autonomy and resources . The power dynamics shifted, with state parties leveraging their influence in national coalitions to negotiate for more favorable terms and policies that aligned with regional interests . This era also saw the emergence of commissions like the Sarkaria Commission, which looked into center-state relations and recommended measures for ensuring better power distribution. Regional parties thus not only shaped state governance but also impacted national policies by using their coalition leverage .

Regional parties significantly contributed to the transformation of India's political party system following the decline of the Congress's dominance. These parties became crucial players during the Coalition Era, often holding the balance of power due to their ability to address regional and community-specific issues, which national parties could not easily do . They challenged the central dominance by focusing on local governance and regional interests, thus decentralizing the political power once held by the Congress . This shift was facilitated by increasing demands for state autonomy and power, as exemplified by the formation of commissions like the Sarkaria Commission, which highlighted regional issues and power distribution. Consequently, regional parties eroded the Congress's electoral base in many states, promoting a multi-party system where coalition governments became the norm .