La Consolacion College Bacolod

Bachelor of Science in Architecture

4th Year Section B
2023-2024

Design 7
Plate No. 1: Airport of International Standard Research Work

Submitted by:
Alyanna Pauline Yulo Gomez

Submitted to:
Ar. Demie Verde
 Table of Contents:

Chapter 1

Introduction…………………………………………………………………...…………………03

Statement of the Problem………………………………………………...………………....04 - 06

Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………..…………….07 - 09

Conceptual Framework……………………………………………….…………..……………...10

Scope of the Study……………………………………………………….……………...……….10

Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………..………….11

Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..…...……11 - 12

Chapter 2

History of Airports……………………………………………………...…………………..

Airport Functional Requirements……………………………………………...…...……….

Types of Planning………………………………………………………….………………..

Airport Legal & Safety Requirements………………………………………...……..……..

Best Practices of Airports…………………………………………………..……………….

Runway……………………………………………………………………...………………

Synthesis for each themes………………………………………………………………….

References…………………………………………………………………………….…….
 Chapter 1

I. Introduction

The airport transport sector plays an important role, not just as the major means of

transportation but also it encourage trade, supporting tourism, and creates opportunity for

employment to foster the growth of a country . It has been identified that airport has come to be

the most substantial element of transportation and one of the main requirements since the 1900s

trade market because it facilitates the economic growth and development of a country. A country

that possess efficient air transport infrastructure and an enabling air transport sector is essential

for a growing country, such as the Philippines, where tourism contributes significantly to the

economic status and employment to the population.

A significant increase in local and foreign visitor arrivals has made the Philippines'

airports among the busiest in all of Asia. The capacity of the nation's air transportation system to

handle the increase in demand is called into doubt by the sharp rise in air travel in recent years.

The purpose of this research is to examine the current status of the country's air transport

infrastructure and review government policies and initiatives aimed at improving the sector's

performance. We address current problems and obstacles limiting the sector's growth using

secondary data and prior research. Following that, we provide some practical policy

recommendations to guarantee the efficient functioning of the upcoming international airport.

 II. Statement of the Problem

The Philippines is a developing country and is now experiencing imminent increase in

demand for air travel in the coming years, which highlights the urgent need to ramp-up

investments in the air transport industry.

Figure 1. International visitors arrival by air

However, issues and challenges is an acting barrier for the economic growth of the

Philippines’ air transport sector. In this study, we classified the issues into for main discussion

relating to the capacity, technical capability, quality and industrial environment.

Capacity. The Ninoy Aquino International Airport, being the country’s premiere airport is faced

with problems related to congestion because the current capacity is unable to adjust to the

increasing demand of air travelers and aircrafts. Yu et al. (2019) noted that in 2016, the Ninoy

Aquino International Airport accommodated around 39.6M passengers, which is way beyond its

maximum capacity of 35M passengers annually. Prior to this, a JICA study in 2011 already

pointed out the capacity constraints of NAIA and labeled it as a pressing issue for both the

government and private sector. Aside from passenger congestion, NAIA also suffers from
runway congestion due to the layout and configuration of runaway and taxiway. JICA also noted

that one of the reasons for aircraft congestion in NAIA is due to the concentration of flights

between 0700 to 1600 (core operational hours). To relieve the congestion, the government

limited the aircraft movement in NAIA to only 40 flights per hour.

Technical capability. Related to the congestion problem, many of the provincial airports in the

country do not have night-rating facilities, forcing airlines to schedule their domestic flights only

during daytime (Rodolfo 2017). As of 2020, the Department of Transportation website reports

that only 22 out of the 90 national airports have night-rating facilities. Six other airports

(Cauayan, Dipolog, Bicol (New Legazpi), Pagadian, San Jose (Mindoro)) are scheduled to be

fitted with night-rating facilities. Another issue raised by IATA in 2016 is the weak technical

capability of airports in the Philippines. Runway utilization in NAIA for instance is

sub-optimized due to factors such as air traffic management issues; vectors and delays; lack of

radar; non-standard air traffic control procedures; poor en-route communications; safety

concerns for ground operations.

Quality. Currently, comparative statistics on the quality and capacity of airports in the

Philippines indicate a huge gap with that of neighboring countries. Among the countries included

in Table 1, the Philippines appear to receive the lowest score on Aviation infrastructure, which is

based on indicators related to flight availability and the quality of hard infrastructure utilized

domestic and international flights.

Table 1. Indicators on airport infrastructure for select countries

Institutional environment. The provision of good-quality and well-functioning air transport

infrastructure is highly affected by its institutional environment. Like other sub-sectors of

transport sector in the Philippines, the institutional environment for air transport sector is in need

of an overhaul. The study of Rodolfo (2017) pushes for (1) coherence and convergence among

government agencies responsible for airport development and their implementation; and suggests

to (2) separate regulatory and developmental functions of agencies in the sector. Furthermore, an

earlier study of the World Bank in 2009 study highlighted the need for an integrated system for

planning, budgeting, building and operating transport infrastructure in the Philippines. The ADB

(2012) likewise noted the limited coordination among agencies responsible for transport

infrastructure in the country, resulting to fragmented transport development and lack of seamless

connectivity among different modes of transportation.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Philippine Air Transport Infrastructure: State, Issues, Government Strategies (DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES NO. 2022-62)
III. Theoretical Framework

Air transport sector: Global contribution

The air transport sector provides a rapid global transport network that is essential in the

conduct of business and trade activities (Air Transport Action Group 2020). Prior to the

COVID-19 pandemic, the estimated global economic impact of the sector is $3.5 trillion,

including direct, indirect and catalytic impacts of the sector. According to a report1, the air

transport sector supports 4.1 percent of global GDP; a contribution so large that it could match

the GDP of Indonesia or the Netherlands. In 2019, airlines carried a total of 4.5 billion

passengers and 61 million tonnes of freight. Jobs in the sector are on average, 4.3 times more

productive than other jobs because of the ability of the air transport sector to induce catalytic

effects due to the opening of markets and spread of knowledge2. A total of 87.7 million jobs

were supported by air transport sector in 2019. Table 2 shows that most of the direct employment

provided by the sector is located in the Asia-Pacific region.

Table 2. Direct employment by air transport, by region

__________________________________________________________________________________________
Data from Air Transport Action Group 2020. Aviation: Benefits Beyond Borders

Supply and demand for air travel in PH

A well-functioning and efficient air transport infrastructure is necessary to continue the

air transport sector’s facilitating role in the conduct of global trade and tourism. Presently, the

Philippines records a total of 90 national airports as shown in Figure 2; wherein 8 are

international airports, 21 are classified as Principal class 1, 20 are classified as Principal class 2,

38 are community airports and 3 airports are not yet operational5. Majority of these airports, 42,

located in Luzon while 22 and 26 of these are located in Visayas and Mindanao, respectively.

Figure 2. Airports in the Philippines

__________________________________________________________________________________________
Data from Philippine Statistics Authority OpenSTAT Tourism Database, accessed on December 29, 2022.
Based on 2019 Philippine Tourism Satellite Accounts Report.

Over recent years, airport utilization has generally increased among the country’s top

airports. As exhibited in Figure 3, the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) remains as the

most popular choice for passengers, accommodating almost 50 million passengers in 2019 from

less than 30 million passengers in 2010. The Mactan, Davao and Clark international airports

have also experienced a significant rise in number of passengers.

Figure 3. Top 20 airports by passengers, 2010-2019

______________________________________________________________________________________________________
Philippine Air Transport Infrastructure: State, Issues, Government Strategies (DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES NO. 2022-62)

IV. Conceptual Framework

V. Scope of the Study

Scope & limitation of the study ‘Airport of International Standard’ are:

a. This study will focus on promoting economic development and improve efficiency of Airports

in the Philippines.

b. The proposed design is focused on minimizing the negative impacts of airports and aviation

with green and sustainable concept design.

c. The standard requirement issued by local government or private entities will be used as a basis

for concept development or applied directly to the green and sustainable airport design.

d. For other problems that are beyond the scope of the architectural coverage and determine if it

is deemed to be fundamental will be studied and solved using assumptions as well as the

practical logic in accordance with existing capabilities.

VI. Significance of the Study

Significance of the study of ‘Airport of International Standard’ are:

a. The demand of a high quality, adequate and modern facility that able to provide the need

of air transportation on national and international coverage in the Philippines.

b. To provide a sustainable international airport design to minimize negative impacts of

pollution caused by the existence of an airport and aviation activity in the Philippines.

c. Improvement of regional and national economy with the provision of air transport

activity center that is able to accommodate any activities, purpose, and regional plan for

the government as well as the private sector on national and international scale.

d. The preparation & making of concept and building design.

VII. Definition of Terms

Aerodrome. A defined area on land or water (including any buildings, installations and

equipment) intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival, departure and surface

movement of aircraft.

Aerodrome elevation. The elevation of the highest point of the landing area.

Clearway. A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the appropriate

authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over which an aeroplane may make a portion of

its initial climb to a specified height.

Displaced threshold. A threshold not located at the extremity of a runway.

Frangible object. An object of low mass designed to break, distort or yield on impact so as to

present the minimum hazard to aircraft.

Instrument runway. One of the following types of runways intended for the operation of aircraft

using instrument approach procedures:

a) Non-precision approach runway. An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non-visual

aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in approach.

b) Precision approach runway, category I. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS and

visual aids intended for operations with a decision height not lower than 60 m (200 ft) and either

a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m.

c) Precision approach runway, category II. An instrument runway served by ILS and/or MLS and

visual aids intended for operations with a decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft) but not lower

than 30 m (100 ft) and a runway visual range not lower than 350 m.
 Chapter 2

I. History of Airport

The history of aviation dates to the 5th century with the invention of kites in China. The

famous artist Leonardo da Vinci created the first drafts for a rational aircraft in his paintings in

the 15th century. In 1647, Tito Livio Burattini developed a model aircraft featuring four pairs of

glider wings. But it never supported the weight of a person. Later, in 1970, Francesco Terzi, the

Father of Aeronautics, published a theory that showed the possibility of lighter-than-air aircraft

made of copper foil cylinders.

The discovery of hydrogen in the 17th century led to the development of the first hydrogen

balloon. In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers, including Jacques-Étienne and Joseph-Michel, flew the first

unmanned hot air balloon over Annonay, France. The same year, they flew a piloted, tethered hot air

balloon with Giroud de Villette, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, and Jean-Baptiste Réveillon onboard.

Later, they launched their first untethered hot air balloon flight, which flew nine kilometers in about 25

minutes. The hot air balloon became exceptionally popular during the late 18th century, which led to the

discovery of the relationship between altitude and atmosphere. However, the main downside of hot air

balloons was a lack of maneuverability.

The invention of airships came to solve the issue with hot air balloons. Unlike hot air balloons,

airships used hydrogen or helium gas to lift and were the first ones to carry passengers over long

distances. Alberto Santos-Dumont was the first person to fly an untethered airship designed with an

internal combustion engine. In 1901, Santos-Dumont launched his airship known as “Number 6” over

Paris in less than thirty minutes. In 1899, Ferdinand von Zeppelin started building the first Zeppelin

airship, which featured two Daimler engines. In 1902, Leonardo Torres Quevedo launched his version of
The Zeppelin, which dealt with the balancing problems of the first Zeppelin. However, the fatal crash at

Lakehurst, New Jersey, in 1937 marked the end of the airship era.

Despite the numerous advancements of lighter-than-air aircraft, their existence was

short-lived and overshadowed by the invention of the heavier-than-air airplane. In 1869, Samuel

Pierpont Langley was the first to launch an unmanned heavier-than-air aircraft on a sustained

flight successfully. Langley was later funded by the US government to create a crewed version of

his heavier-than-air aircraft for purposes of spying on the enemy. However, his design was not

successful.

Between 1900 and 1902, the Wright Brothers, Wilbur and Orville Wright from Dayton,

Ohio, designed and tested numerous glider and kite models. They built a wind tunnel and then

created various devices to measure the drag and lift on more than two hundred wing designs.

Finally, their third glider was a success as it outdid its predecessors, which heavily contributed to

the aeronautical engineering field.

Aircraft became militarized as soon as it was invented. Italy was the first country to employ

aircraft for military operations. They used airships and monoplanes to bomb, shell, and transportation

during the Turkish-Italian War in Libya.

In 1914, Roland Garros attached a machine gun to his aircraft, making him the first

“ace.” And the following year, Kurt Wintgens secured his first aerial victory using a fighter plane

designed with a machine gun.

Aircraft were first used in active combat on a large scale in World War I. This played a

decisive role in the First World War. France became the leading aircraft manufacturer during the
war, producing over 68,000 airplanes between 1914 and 1918. During World War II, nearly all

nations increased their production and development of aircraft and flight-based systems. The

military used fighter bombers, strategic bombers, dive bombers, and ground-attack aircraft.

The invention of radar technology led to more precise, coordinated, and controlled

deployment. In 1942, Arado Ar 234, the first jet-powered bomber, was launched. The Second

World War also led to the rapid development of helicopters. By the end of the Second World

War, there were airports or landing strips in many cities and towns. During this period, civil

aviation experienced tremendous growth because military aircraft were repurposed as personal or

airliner planes.

Revolutionary aircraft designs, for instance, the Douglas DC-3, a reliable all-metal

passenger airplane with rubberized seats to reduce vibrations and noise-deadening plastic

insulation, helped make flying more comfortable and accessible for new travellers. To

standardize the safety, consistency, and efficiency of civil flights, the Convention on

International Civil Aviation was established in 1944. Standardization of civil flights led to safer,

more affordable airliners run by major carriers.

Digital adoption and technology techniques in the modern era have seen a massive

advancement in the aviation industry. The release of computer-aided design and computer-aided

manufacturing software in the 1970s facilitated the development of enhanced aircraft designs.

Newer technologies like computer simulations have aided in producing lighter yet more robust

materials for building airplanes.

 Modern aircraft also come equipped with digital systems, eliminating most analog and

mechanical instruments. During the 1980s, cathode-ray displays in the cockpit were replaced

with more advanced computer-based electronic displays. A notable example was the Boeing

767’s glass cockpit in 1981. Modern displays, when integrated into automatic pilots, make

cockpit resource management a crucial aspect of flight safety.

Also, the introduction of composite materials like the one used for building Boeing 787

Dreamliner has significantly cut down the weight of aircraft, leading to improved fuel efficiency.

Advanced composite has also led to the development sweeping wing tips that reduce component

weight and improves aerodynamics of an aircraft.

II. Airport Functional Requirements

1.1 TAXIWAY SYSTEMS FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT

1.1.1 Maximum capacity and efficiency of an aero- drome are realized only by obtaining

the proper balance between the need for runways, passenger and cargo termi- nals, and aircraft

storage and servicing areas. These sepa- rate and distinct aerodrome functional elements are

linked by the taxiway system. The components of the taxiway system therefore serve to link the

aerodrome functions and are necessary to develop optimum aerodrome utilization.

1.1.2 The taxiway system should be designed to minimize the restriction of aircraft

movement to and from the runways and apron areas. A properly designed system should be

capable of maintaining a smooth, continuous flow of aircraft ground traffic at the maximum
practical speed with a minimum of acceleration or deceleration. This requirement ensures that

the taxiway system will operate at the highest levels of both safety and efficiency.

1.1.3 For any given aerodrome, the taxiway system should be able to accommodate

(without significant delay) the demands of aircraft arrivals and departures on the runway system.

At low levels of runway utilization the taxiway system can accomplish this with a minimum

num- ber of components. However, as the runway acceptance rate increases, the taxiway system

capacity must be sufficiently expanded to avoid becoming a factor which limits aero- drome

capacity. In the extreme case of runway capacity saturation, when aircraft are arriving and

departing at the minimum separation distances, the taxiway system should allow aircraft to exit

the runway as soon as practical after landing and to enter the runway just before take-off. This

enables aircraft movements on the runway to be maintained at the minimum separation distance.

Planning principles

1.1.4 Runways and taxiways are the least flexible of the aerodrome elements and must

therefore be considered first when planning aerodrome development. Forecasts of future activity

should identify changes in the rate of aircraft movements, the nature of the traffic, type of aircraft

and any other factors affecting the layout and dimensioning of the runway and taxiway systems.

Care should be taken not to place so much attention on the present needs of the system that later

phases of development that have equal or greater importance are neglected. For example, if an

aero- drome is forecast to serve a higher category of aircraft type in the future, the current

taxiway system should be designed to accommodate the greatest separation distances that

ultimately will be required (see Table 1-1).

1.1.5 In planning the general layout of the taxiway system, the following principles should be

considered:

a) taxiway routes should connect the various aero- drome elements by the shortest distances, thus

minimizing both taxiing time and cost;

b) taxiway routes should be as simple as possible in order to avoid pilot confusion and the need

for complicated instructions;

c) straight runs of pavement should be used wherever possible. Where changes in direction are

necessary, curves of adequate radii, as well as fillets or extra taxiway width, should be provided

to permit taxiing at the maximum practical speed (see Section 1.4 and Appendix 1)

d) taxiway crossings of runways and other taxiways

should be avoided whenever possible in the interests of safety and to reduce the potential for

significant taxiing delays;

e) taxiway routings should have as many one-way segments as possible to minimize aircraft

conflicts and delay. Taxiway segment flows should be analysed for each configuration under

which runway(s) will be used;

f) the taxiway system should be planned to maximize the useful life of each component so that

future
2.1 NEED FOR HOLDING BAYS AND OTHER BYPASSES

2.1.1 Procedures for Air Navigation Services — Air Traffic Management (Doc 4444),

Chapter 7, 7.8.1 - Departure Sequence, states that "departures shall normally be cleared in the

order in which they are ready for take-off, except that deviations may be made from this order of

priority to facilitate the maximum number of departures with the least average delay". At low

levels of aerodrome activity (less than approximately 50 000 annual operations), there is

normally little need to make deviations in the departure sequence. However, for higher activity

levels, aerodromes with single taxiways and no holding bays or other bypasses provide

aerodrome control units with no opportunity to change the sequence of departures once the

aircraft have left the apron. In particular, at aerodromes with large apron areas, it is often difficult

to arrange for aircraft to leave the apron in such a way that they will arrive at the end of the

runway in the sequence required by air traffic services units.

2.1.2 The provision of an adequate number of holding bay spaces or other bypasses,

based upon an analysis of the current and near-term hourly aircraft departure demand, will allow

a large degree of flexibility in generating the departure sequence. This provides air traffic

services units with greater flexibility in adjusting the take-off sequence to overcome undue

delays, thus increasing the capacity of an aerodrome. In addition, holding bays or other bypasses

allow:

a) departure of certain aircraft to be delayed owing to unforeseen circumstances without

delaying the following aircraft (for instance, a last minute addi- tion to the payload or a

replacement of defective equipment);

 b) aircraft to carry out pre-flight altimeter checks and alignment and programming of

airborne inertial navigation systems when this is not possible on the apron;

c) engine runups for piston aircraft; and

d) establishment of a VOR aerodrome check-point.

 2.2 TYPES OF BYPASSES

2.2.1 In general, taxiway features that allow an aircraft to bypass a preceding aircraft can be

divided into three types:

a) Holding bays. A defined area where aircraft can be held or bypassed. Figure 2-1 shows

some examples of holding bay configurations and Figure 2-2 gives a detailed example of

a holding bay, located at the taxi-holding position.

b) Dual taxiways. A second taxiway or a taxiway bypass to the normal parallel taxiway.

Figure 2-3 shows some examples.

c) Dual runway entrances. A duplication of the taxi- way entrance to the runway. Some

examples are shown in Figure 2-4.

3.1 TYPES OF APRON

Passenger terminal apron

3.1.1 The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for aircraft maneuvering and

parking that is adjacent or readily accessible to passenger terminal facilities. This area is where

passengers board the aircraft from the passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating passenger

movement, the passenger terminal apron is used for aircraft fuelling and maintenance as well as

loading and unloading cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft parking positions on the

passenger terminal apron are referred to as aircraft stands.

Cargo terminal apron

3.1.2 Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be provided a separate cargo terminal

apron adjacent to a cargo terminal building. The separation of cargo and passenger aircraft is

desirable because of the different types of facilities each requires both on the apron and at the

terminal.

Remote parking apron

3.1.3 In addition to the terminal apron, airports may require a separate parking apron

where aircraft can park for extended periods. These aprons can be used during crew layovers or

for light periodic servicing and maintenance of temporarily grounded aircraft. While parking

aprons are removed from the terminal aprons, they should be located as close to them as is

practical to minimize the time for passenger loading/unloading as well as from a security point of

view.
Service and hangar aprons

3.1.4 A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an aircraft hangar on which

aircraft maintenance can be performed, while a hangar apron is an area on which aircraft move

into and out of a storage hangar.

General aviation aprons

3.1.5 General aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying, require several

categories of aprons to support different general aviation activities.

3.2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR APRON DESIGN

3.2.1 The design of any of the various apron types requires the evaluation of many

interrelated and often contradictory characteristics. Despite the distinct purposes of the different

apron types, there are many general design characteristics relating to safety, efficiency, geometry,

flexibility and engineering that are common to all types. The following paragraphs give a brief

description of these general design requirements.

Safety

3.2.2 Apron design should take into account safety procedures for aircraft maneuvering

on the apron. Safety in this context implies that aircraft maintain specified clearances and follow

the established procedures to enter, move within and depart from apron areas. Services provided

to aircraft parked on the apron should incorporate safety procedures, especially regarding aircraft

fuelling. Pavements should slope away from terminal buildings and other structures to prevent

the spread of fuel fires on the apron. Water outlets should be located at each stand position for
routine hosing of the apron surface. Aircraft security should also be considered in locating the

apron area where the aircraft can be protected from unauthorized personnel. This is

accomplished by physically separating public access areas from the apron areas.

Efficiency

3.2.3 Apron design should contribute to a high degree of efficiency for aircraft

movements and dispensing apron services. Freedom of movement, minimum taxi distances and a

minimum of delay for aircraft initiating movements on the apron are all measures of efficiency

for any of the apron types. If the ultimate aircraft stand arrangement can be determined during

the initial planning phase of the aerodrome, utilities and services should be installed in fixed

installations. Fuel lines and hydrants, compressed air hookups and electrical power systems must

be carefully preplanned because these systems are often placed under the apron pavement. The

high initial cost of these systems will be offset by the increased efficiency of the stand, which

allows greater utilization of the apron. Achieving these measures of efficiency will ensure the

maximum economic value of the apron.

Geometry

3.2.4 The planning and design of any apron type are dependent upon a number of

geometric considerations. For example, the length and width of a land parcel available for apron

development may preclude the choice of certain apron layout concepts. For a new aerodrome it

may be possible to develop the most efficient arrangement, based upon the nature of the demand,

and then to set aside an area of land ideally suited to the plan. However, expansion or
addition of aprons at existing aerodromes will usually be less than ideal due to the limitations

imposed by the shape and size of available parcels. The overall area needed per aircraft stand

includes the area required for aircraft stand taxilane as well as apron taxiways used in common

with other aircraft stands. Therefore, the overall area needed for apron development is a function

not only of aircraft size, clearances and parking method, but also of the geometric arrangement

of aircraft stand taxilane, other taxiways, blast fences, areas used for the stationing of service

vehicles and roads for the movement of ground vehicles.

III. Types of Planning

Types of Terminal Concepts

a. Consolidated terminal

b. Finger terminal (consolidated)

c. Satellite terminal(consolidated)

d. Finger terminals (decentralized)

e. Satellite terminals (decentralized)

f. Drive to gate
g. Mobile lounge
Types of Terminal Area Concepts

a. Simple Terminal Concept. The simple terminal consists of a single common waiting and
ticketing area with exits leading to the aircraft parking apron. It is adaptable to airports
with low airline activity which will usually have an apron providing close-in parking for
three to six commercial transport aircraft.

b. Pier Concept. The pier concept has an interface with

aircraft along piers extending from the main terminal
area . In the pier concept, aircraft are usually arranged
around the axis of the pier in a parallel or perpendicular
parked relationship . Each pier has a row of aircraft gate
positions on both sides, with the passenger right of way
or concourse running along the axis of the pier which
serves as the circulation space for enplaning and
deplaning passengers.

c. Satellite Concept. The satellite concept consists of a

building, surrounded by aircraft, which is separated
from the terminal and is usually reached by means of
a surface, underground, or above-grade connector.
The aircraft are normally parked in radial or parallel
positions around the satellite, which can have
common or separate departure lounges.
d. Linear Concept. In the linear
concept aircraft are parked
along the face of the terminal
building . Concourses connect
the various terminal functions
with the aircraft gate positions .
This concept offers ease of
access and relatively short
walking distances if passengers
are delivered to a point near gate departure by vehicular circulation systems. Expansion
may be accomplished by linear extension of an existing structure or by developing two or
more linear-terminal units with connecters.

e. Transporter Concept. Aircraft

and aircraft servicing functions in
the transporter concept are
remotely located from the
terminal . The connection to the
terminal is provided by vehicular
transport for enplaning and
deplaning passengers. The
characteristics of the transporter
concept include flexibility in
providing additional aircraft
parking positions to accommodate
increases in schedules for aircraft
size, capability to maneuver an
aircraft in and out of a parking
position under its own power, separation of aircraft servicing activities from the terminal,
and reduced walking distances for the passenger.
IV. Airport Legal & Safety Requirements

Airport planning is a complex discipline involving a number of key elements. All these elements

are to be dealt with caution since any of them can represent a tipping point for the success or failure

of an airport project. Each of the elements might have a specific, and different, impact on the airport

planning process, and carries a specific risk. For medium-sized and small airports, as well as

heliports, they usually involve:

● Legal frame and regulations,

● Land use and compatibility planning,

● Surface access,

● Future market forecast,

● Impact on local communities,

● Airport operation requirements.

Airport planning is usually outlined in a master plan document. The goal of a master plan is

to provide guidelines for future airport development which will satisfy aviation demand in a financially

feasible manner, while at the same time addressing the related the aviation, environmental and

socio-economic issues existing in the community.

Legal framework

A set of laws, International and national standards and recommended practices,

Other regulations, documents, and manuals specify the legal framework for airport and heliport

design, negotiating, and airport technical documentation. In the Slovak context, they are in particular:

● The Civil Aviation Act (Aviation Act), No. 143/1998,

● Building Act (Law on Town and Country Planning and Building Code), No. 50/1976,

● Law on Environmental Impact Assessment, No. 24/2006.

 The basic standards and recommended practices for design and assessing airports is the

national standard L-14 Airports, Volume I. Design and operation of airports of 20th June 2009. The

limitation of the national regulation is that it was issued in 2009 on the basis of the 4th edition of

Annex 14/I. of July 2004 and has not been updated since then (the latest issue of the Annex 14/I is

the 6th edition of July 2013). Some of the parameters, for example for general aviation airports, need

to be discussed "ad hoc" in cooperation with the Transport Authority.

Procedures for airport designing, building up and certification

The process of designing and establishing an airport begins with the airport site selection

and assessment. It continues with an application for approval to establish the airport, the preparation

of the planning permit documentation, obtaining planning permit, preparing building permit

documentation, getting building permit, construction of an airport, final building approval, obtaining

the permit to operate, proposal of the airport protection zones (compulsory for public airports), public

hearing on protection zones proposal, and declaration of the protection zones.

 V. Best Practices of Airports

Prerequisites that help support the successful implementation of best practices include:

● A stable and supportive political, regulatory, and economic environment.

● A strategy that balances the economic and social benefits of an airport with its impact on

surrounding communities and the environment.

● Robust, independent economic regulation that follows the ICAO charges principles of

transparency, non-discrimination, cost relatedness, and consultation.

● A recognition that airlines are the primary users and customers of airports and a major

source of revenue.

● Consultation between airports and airlines on capital infrastructure projects to capture

user requirements and safeguard functionality.

● A quality regime to monitor performance and promote continuous improvement. The

following sections provide recommended practices that should be considered for key

elements of airport planning and design.

1. Master Plan, Land-Use, Forecasts

An airport master plan should be in place to set out the type of facilities to be built, the

scale of the investment and that it is properly phased to ensure that development proceeds in a

structured balanced and orderly manner. The master plan should describe how the airport’s

ultimate development potential is to be achieved. Critical planning elements include:

 ● Forecasts of future levels of aviation activity (passengers, cargo, aircraft movements) for

the next 20 years should be developed and used to form the basis of decision-making.

● A land use plan should be in place to safeguard the overall layout of the airport’s runway

system, terminals and support facilities and make sure that the airspace around the airport

is free from obstacles.

● Land use plans should also confirm that noise sensitive developments do not encroach on

key operational areas.

● Expansion should be governed by demand triggers linked to traffic figures and the

required lead time for development.

2. Airside Development

Runways, taxiways, and aprons occupy significant space and determine an airport’s

layout and ultimate capacity. The following practices can increase efficiency and user

convenience. Runways and Taxiways The airfield should maintain a continuous flow of aircraft

movements and minimize taxi distances and fuel burn while maximizing operational efficiency

and flexibility. The following practices should be considered:

● For midfield passenger terminal developments and if wind conditions permit, airports

should prioritize staggered independent parallel runways.

● IATA recommends having adequate space between parallel runways (2,000 meters) to

deliver optimum space for midfield terminal and apron facilities.

● Runways should be planned with sufficient space for a dual parallel taxiway system to be

located adjacent and parallel to all runways.

3. Aprons
● There should be enough parking positions to accommodate peak hour demand, based on

the mix of aircraft and the level of pier service required via contact gates.

● Where economically feasible, fixed electrical ground power and pre-conditioned air may

be employed to reduce noise and emissions from aircraft auxiliary power units and diesel

powered ground power units at aircraft stands.

● Centralized deicing pads should be placed adjacent to primary departure runway

thresholds.

● Apron configuration and capacity should enable airline users to collocate operations.

● Aprons should be planned in connection with terminal buildings to minimize taxiing

distances between runways and aircraft stands.

● Configure aprons to minimize adverse effects such as engine blast, noise, air pollution,

etc. on the apron and the surrounding environment.

● Where required, apron layouts should provide maximum flexibility in terms of the size

and number of aircraft that can be accommodated, e.g., Multiple Aircraft Ramp System

(MARS).

● Single taxilane cul-de-sac aircraft parking positions are not recommended to avoid push

back conflicts.

● Dedicated space should be provided near aircraft stands for parked ground services

equipment, and cargo staging areas.

● Provision should be made for hydrant refueling (should uplift volumes justify), and for

fixed electrical ground power and pre-conditioned air if economically justified.

● Aprons should be located to reduce the need for aircraft and Ground Services Equipment

(GSE) to cross runways. End-around taxiways and vehicular tunnels may be considered
 ● Front-of-stand service roads are preferred to avoid delays on aircraft push-back and

potential conflicts between airside vehicles and aircraft.

Air Traffic Control

● Collaboration with air traffic services is required to maintain schedule integrity and

minimize restrictions on airspace capacity.

● Air Traffic Control capacity should not be a limiting factor in airport infrastructure

capacity.

● Minimize conflict with adjacent airports or military traffic restrictions.

● All-weather operations should be supported.

● Operational curfews or other artificial capacity limitations should be avoided.

Passenger Terminal

Airport passenger terminals should enable a secure, efficient, and seamless flow of

passengers and bags. The following points should be considered:

● Passenger terminals located with convenient access to the airside system with sufficient

space set aside for future expansion.

● Terminal facilities designed to accommodate projected typical peak demand, at an IATA

Levels of Service (LoS) of “Optimum” to balance service quality with cost.

● Balanced passenger terminal subsystems to avoid bottlenecks.

● Airlines collocated to avoid spilt operations to the greatest extent possible.

 ● A flexible, modular design that enables enhancements to individual subsystems and

facilities, without unnecessary disruption.

● Plans should integrate a ‘concept of operations’ on how the facility will be used –

common use facilities and systems, airline assignments, technology adoption – that

supports efficiency.

Baggage Handling System (BHS)

The processing of passengers and baggage are fully interdependent therefore baggage and

passenger flows should be coordinated with respect to processing time and capacity. Key

considerations include:

● The BHS should be designed with the size of the airport and types of passengers (e.g.,

domestic, international, transfer) in mind.

● BHS systems should be considered early in the design process as they require significant

space and can be a major component of the overall capital and operating costs.

● The BHS should be efficient, reliable and flexible with in-line Hold Baggage Screening

(HBS).

● The BHS should offer a high level of redundancy and resilience to cope with partial

system failure and common user operations i.e., any input to any output.

● There should be flexibility to support baggage tracking as required.

VI. Runway

In view of the vital function of runways in providing for safe and efficient aircraft

landings and take-offs, it is imperative that their design take into account the operational and

physical characteristics of the aero planes expected to use the runway, as well as engineering and

economic considerations.

The aerodrome elements associated with runways which are directly related to the

landing and take-off of aero planes are: runway strips, runway shoulders, stopways, clearways

and runway end safety areas. This manual concerns the provision of runways and these

associated elements and summarizes specifications and guidance material relating to their

geometric design. Pavement strength design aspects are covered in the Aerodrome Design

Manual (Doc 9157), Part 3 — Pavements.

Consideration for Runways

Factors Relating to the Siting, Orientation and Number of Runways:

Many factors affect the determination of the siting, orientation and number of runways.

The more important factors are:

a) weather, in particular the runway/aerodrome usability factor, as determined by wind

distribution, and the occurrence of localized fogs;

b) topography of the aerodrome site and its surroundings;

c) type and amount of air traffic to be served, including air traffic control aspects;

d) aeroplane performance considerations; and

e) environmental considerations, particularly noise.

 1. Wind

The number and orientation of runways at an aerodrome should be such that the usability

factor of the aerodrome is not less than 95 per cent for the aeroplane that the aerodrome is

intended to serve.

2. Visibility conditions

Wind characteristics under poor visibility conditions are often quite different from those

experienced under good visibility conditions. Therefore a study should be made of the wind

conditions occurring with poor visibility and/or low cloud base at the aerodrome, including the

frequency of occurrence and the accompanying wind direction and speed.

3. Topography of the aerodrome site, its approaches and surroundings

The topographical features of the aerodrome and its surroundings should be examined. In

particular the following should be reviewed:

a) compliance with the obstacle limitation surfaces;

b) current and future land use. The orientation and layout should be selected so as to

protect as far as

possible the particularly sensitive areas such as residential, school and hospital zones

from the

discomfort caused by aircraft noise;

c) current and future runway lengths to be provided;

d) construction costs; and

 e) the possibility of installing suitable non-visual and visual aids for approach-to-land.

4. Air traffic in the vicinity of the aerodrome

When considering the siting of runways the following should be taken into account:

a) proximity of other aerodromes or ATS routes;

b) traffic density; and

c) air traffic control and missed approach procedures.

5. Environmental factors

The effect of a particular runway alignment on wild life, the general ecology of the area,

and noise-sensitive areas of communities should be considered.

The noise level produced by aircraft operations at and around the aerodrome is generally

considered a primary environmental cost associated with the facility. Most noise exposure lies

within the land area immediately beneath and adjacent to the aircraft approach and departure

paths. Noise levels are generally measured through some formulation of decibel level, duration

and number of occurrences. A large number of noise measuring techniques exist (see Annex 16

— Environmental Protection and Recommended Method for Computing Noise Contours around

Airports (Cir 205)). Proper site selection and adjacent land use planning can serve to greatly

reduce and possibly eliminate the noise problem associated with the aerodrome.
Actual Length of Runway

1. Primary runways

Except where a runway is associated with a stopway and/or clearway, the actual runway

length to be provided for a primary runway should be adequate to meet the operational

requirements of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended and should be not less than the

longest length determined by applying the corrections for local conditions to the operations and

performance characteristics of the relevant aeroplanes.

2. Secondary runways

The length of a secondary runway should be determined similarly to primary runways

except that it needs only to be adequate for those aeroplanes which require to use that secondary

runway in addition to the other runway or runways in order to obtain a usability factor of at least

95 per cent.
Physical Characteristics of Runways

1. Runway Width

2. Slope

Longitudinal slopes

The slope computed by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum

elevation along the runway centre line by the runway length should not exceed:

— 1 per cent where the code number is 3 or 4; and

— 2 per cent where the code number is 1 or 2.

Along no portion of a runway should the longitudinal slope exceed:

— 1.25 per cent where the code number is 4, except that for the first and last quarter of

the length of the runway the longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8 per cent;

— 1.5 per cent where the code number is 3, except that for the first and last quarter of the

length of a precision approach runway category II or III the longitudinal slope should not

exceed 0.8 per cent; and

— 2 per cent where the code number is 1 or 2.

Longitudinal slope changes

Where slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change between two consecutive slopes

should not exceed:

— 1.5 per cent where the code number is 3 or 4; and

— 2 per cent where the code number is 1 or 2.

The transition from one slope to another should be accomplished by a curved surface

with a rate of change not exceeding:

— 0.1 per cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 30 000 m) where the code

number is 4;

— 0.2 per cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 15 000 m) where the code

number is 3; and

— 0.4 per cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 7 500 m) where the code

number is 1 or 2.

3. Surface texture

The surface of a paved runway shall be so constructed as to provide good friction characteristics

when the runway is wet. Evaluation and operational experience have shown that properly

engineered and maintained asphaltic or portland cement concrete surfaces meet these criteria.

This does not preclude the use of other materials which meet these criteria.
 4. Runway Shoulder

Runway shoulders must be provided to ensure a transition from the full strength

pavement to the unpaved strip of the runway. The paved shoulders protect the edge of the

runway pavement, contribute to the prevention of soil erosion by jet blast and mitigate foreign

object damage to jet engines. Where the soil is susceptible to erosion, the width of the shoulders

may be increased beyond the minimum values recommended in 5.2.8, after taking into account

the exhaust velocity contours of the most demanding aircraft.

Length

strip should extend before the threshold and beyond the end of the runway or stopway for

a distance of at least:

— 60 m where the code number is 2, 3 or 4;

— 60 m where the code number is 1 and the runway is an instrument one; and

— 30 m where the code number is 1 and the runway is a non-instrument one.

Width

A strip including a precision approach runway shall, wherever practicable, extend

laterally for a distance of at least:

— 150 m where the code number is 3 or 4; and

— 75 m where the code number is 1 or 2;

on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line throughout the length of

the strip.

A strip including a non-precision approach runway should extend laterally to a distance

of at least:

— 150 m where the code number is 3 or 4; and

 — 75 m where the code number is 1 or 2;

on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line throughout the length of

the strip.

A strip including a non-instrument runway should extend, on each side of the centre line

of the runway and its extended centre line throughout the length of the strip, for a distance of at

least:

— 75 m where the code number is 3 or 4;

Runway Turn pads

A runway turn pad is defined as an area on a land aerodrome adjacent to a runway for the

purpose of completing a 180-degree turn on a runway where no taxiway exists. The additional

pavement of the turn pad is intended to facilitate the safe and easy turn-around of aircraft while

enhancing airport capacity at such airports. With careful planning, additional taxiway

components can be added to the system in stages to keep pace with traffic growth.
VII. Synthesis for each themes

The airport transport sector is crucial for a country's economic growth and development,

as it encourages trade, supports tourism, and creates employment opportunities. It is important

to consider the functional requirements, type of planning, the legal and safety requirements to of

an international airport to ensure the safety, security, and efficiency of the future International

Airport. The themes gathered will ensure that the quality and security of the airport will be

established in our future development.

Furthermore, practical policy recommendations are needed to ensure the efficient

functioning of the upcoming international airport in the Philippines. By addressing these issues

and providing practical policy recommendations, the Philippines can ensure the efficient

functioning of its airports and contribute to the country's economic growth.

VIII. References

Philippine Air Transport Infrastructure: State, Issues, Government Strategies, K. Francisco & V.

Lim, 2022. DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES NO. 2022-62.

Asian Development Bank. 2012. Transport sector assessment, strategy, and road map. Metro

Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank Institute.

Air Transport Action Group. 2020. Aviation: Benefits Beyond Borders. Geneva, Switzerland:

ATAG.

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). 2016. Philippine development plan

2017–2022. Pasig City, Philippines: NEDA. [Link]

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