UNIT – X

CHAPTER – 14
 ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
An ecosystem can be conceptualized as a functional unit in nature where living organisms
interact with each other and their physical surroundings.
Examples of Ecosystems:
• Terrestrial Ecosystems: These include ecosystems found on land, such as forests,
grasslands, and deserts.
• Aquatic Ecosystems: These encompass ecosystems in water bodies, including ponds,
lakes, wetlands, rivers, and estuaries.
• Man-made ecosystems- like crop fields and aquariums

FUNCTIONS:
▪ The major functional attributes of the ecosystem are:
▪ (i) Productivity (ii) Decomposition (iii) Energy flow (iv) Nutrient cycling.

1. PRODUCTVITY:
▪ The rate of synthesis of organic matter or biomass production is called productivity.
▪ Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area
over a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g m-2) or
energy (kcal m-2).
▪ The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in terms of gm-2 yr -1 or (kcal
m-2 yr -1 to compare the productivity of different ecosystems.
▪ It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP).

Note:
▪ Primary productivity depends on
(i) A number of environmental factors.
(ii) Availability of nutrients and
(iii) Photosynthetic capacity of plants.
▪ Therefore, it varies in different types of ecosystems.
▪ The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry
weight) of organic matter.
▪ Of this, despite occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only
55 billion tons. rest, is on land.

(i) Gross primary productivity (GPP).

▪ Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.
 It is equivalent to total photosynthesis and indicates the capacity of producers to assimilate light
energy into living matter.

(ii) Net primary productivity (NPP).

 A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants in respiration.
 Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP).

Net primary productivity = Gross primary productivity due to respiration and maintenance.

or

Secondary Productivity (SP):

The heterotrophic organisms obtain their energy by consuming organic matter from the
producer. Energy thus enters ecosystems via photosynthesis and passes through the different
trophic levels. At each consumer level a part of the energy is used for respiration and a part of
it is stored. If there is more storage than consumption, the biomass of the population would be
higher at the end of a time period than at the beginning.

Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers..

It should be noted that the food of consumers has been produced by the primary producers, and
secondary productivity reflects only the utilization of this food for the production of consumer
biomass.

---------------------------------------------

DECOMPOSITION PROCESSES

▪ The process of break down of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like
carbon dioxide, water and nutrients by decomposer organisms like bacteria, earthworms,
millipedes, insects etc. and is called as decomposition.
▪ Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including
fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw material for decomposition.
▪ The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching,
catabolism, humification and mineralisation.

(i) Fragmentation of detritus.

▪ Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is
called fragmentation.
▪ It increases the surface area of the detritus for microbial action.

(ii) Leaching.
▪ When water percolates through soil, soluble substances (e.g. sugars, several nutrients) come
out of the fragmented detritus into the soil by leaching action.

(iii) Catabolism.
▪ It is the enzymatic conversion of the decomposing detritus to simpler compounds and
inorganic substances. Catabolism of detritus is carried out by the extra cellular enzymes
released by bacteria and fungi.
▪ All the three decomposition processes operate simultaneously on the detritus.

(iv) Humification
▪ The process of decomposition of detritus results into humification and mineralisation.
▪ Humification leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus.
▪ Humus is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes extremely slow
decomposition. It serves as a reservoir of nutrients.

(v) Mineralization
▪ It results in the release of inorganic substances (e g CO2 , water) and available nutrients (e
g Mg2+ , K+ etc ) in the soil The organisms that decompose fresh organic matter are
ecologically different flora from those that decompose humus.

Factors affecting decomposition :

▪ Decomposition is largely an aerobic process, i.e., it requires oxygen.
▪ The factors affecting, decomposition are:
(i) The chemical composition of detritus and
(ii) The climatic factors.
▪ If detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, decomposition is slow; decomposition is faster if
detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances.
▪ Temperature and soil moisture are the important climatic factors that regulate
decomposition through their effects on the activities of soil microbes.
▪ Warm and moist environment favours decomposition, while low temperature and anaerobic
conditions inhibit decomposition.

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

• In ecosystems, the primary source of energy is the sun, with the exception of deep-sea
hydrothermal ecosystems.
• Only a fraction of solar radiation is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), and
plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs) convert this energy into food from
simple inorganic materials.
• Plants capture a small percentage (2-10%) of PAR, which is crucial for sustaining the
entire living world. Thus, understanding how this solar energy flows through
ecosystems is essential.
Unidirectional Flow of Energy:
• In ecosystems, there is a unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers
(green plants) and then to consumers.
• All organisms, whether producers or consumers, depend on the energy trapped by
producers to meet their food needs.
• This unidirectional flow of energy complies with the First Law of Thermodynamics,
which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred from one
form to another.
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
• Ecosystems are subject to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that
energy is required to maintain order and counteract the tendency toward increasing
disorder.
• Ecosystems need a constant supply of energy to synthesize the molecules they require
and to prevent a loss of order.
Producers in Ecosystems:
• Green plants are the primary producers in ecosystems, using photosynthesis to convert
sunlight into organic molecules.
• In terrestrial ecosystems, major producers include herbaceous and woody plants.
• In aquatic ecosystems, producers comprise various species such as phytoplankton,
algae, and higher aquatic plants.
Food Chains and Webs:
• In ecosystems, food chains and webs represent the interrelationships between
organisms and the flow of energy.
• Food chains begin with producers (plants) and involve a sequence where an organism
feeds on another, forming a chain or web due to interdependency.
Consumers in Ecosystems:
• Consumers, also known as heterotrophs, rely on plants (directly or indirectly) for their
food needs.
• Primary consumers, herbivores, feed directly on producers (plants) in terrestrial
ecosystems. Common herbivores include insects, birds, and mammals.
• Secondary consumers are animals that feed on other animals that, in turn, eat plants or
plant products. Tertiary consumers may also exist in the ecosystem.
Grazing Food Chain (GFC):
• The GFC is a simple representation of a food chain where primary consumers
(herbivores) are followed by primary carnivores (secondary consumers) and then by
secondary carnivores.
Detritus Food Chain (DFC):
• The detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter and is composed of
decomposers, which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria.
 • Decomposers, also known as saprotrophs, derive their energy and nutrients by
breaking down dead organic matter or detritus. They secrete digestive enzymes to
decompose dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic substances, which they
then absorb.
• In aquatic ecosystems, the grazing food chain (GFC) is the primary pathway for
energy flow, while in terrestrial ecosystems, a more significant portion of energy
flows through the detritus food chain.
Interconnection of Food Chains and Food Webs:
• Food chains are not isolated but interconnected in natural ecosystems. Some
organisms in the detritus food chain can become prey for animals in the grazing food
chain. Additionally, some omnivores, like cockroaches and crows, bridge the gap
between both types of food chains, making them part of a food web.
• Human beings, being omnivores, have a flexible feeding relationship, as they can
consume both plant and animal-based foods. This adaptability makes their
classification within a food web more dynamic.
Trophic Levels:
• Organisms are classified in an ecosystem based on their feeding relationships with
other organisms. This classification is known as their trophic level, which indicates
their place in the food chain.
• Producers, such as plants, occupy the first trophic level as they convert sunlight into
organic molecules.
• Herbivores, which are primary consumers feeding on producers, occupy the second
trophic level.
• Carnivores, or secondary consumers, occupy the third trophic level and feed on
primary consumers.
Energy Decrease in Successive Trophic Levels:
• One crucial observation in ecosystems is that the amount of energy decreases as you
move up the successive trophic levels in a food chain or food web. This is known as
the "10 percent law," which states that only about 10 percent of the energy is
transferred from one trophic level to the next.
• When an organism dies, it is converted into detritus or dead biomass. This detritus
serves as an energy source for decomposers, starting the detritus food chain.
• Organisms at each trophic level rely on those at lower trophic levels for their energy
needs. This flow of energy forms the basis of ecosystem dynamics.
Standing Crop and Biomass Measurement:
• Each trophic level in an ecosystem has a certain mass of living organisms at a
particular time, known as the standing crop.
• The standing crop is measured in terms of the mass of living organisms (biomass) or
the number of organisms in a unit area.
• Biomass measurement can be expressed in terms of fresh weight or dry weight.
Measuring biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate because it eliminates the
water content, providing a more consistent and precise measure of the actual
biological material present.
Limitations in Grazing Food Chains:
• In grazing food chains, there is a limitation on the number of trophic levels due to the
10 percent law, which restricts the transfer of energy. Only about 10 percent of the
energy is passed on from one trophic level to the next, resulting in decreasing energy
availability at higher trophic levels.
• In nature, it is possible to have multiple trophic levels in a grazing food chain,
including producers, herbivores, primary carnivores, secondary carnivores, and so on.
Limitations in Detritus Food Chains:
• Detritus food chains do not face the same limitation in the number of trophic levels as
grazing food chains. The energy flow in detritus food chains can involve numerous
levels as decomposers continuously break down and recycle dead organic matter,
allowing for a complex network of interactions within these chains.
Detritus food chains are more flexible in terms of trophic levels and play a vital role in
nutrient cycling and maintaining ecosystem health.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

• Ecological pyramids represent the food or energy relationships between organisms at

different trophic levels within an ecosystem. There are three main types of ecological
pyramids: a) Pyramid of Number b) Pyramid of Biomass c) Pyramid of Energy
• In ecological pyramids, the base represents the first trophic level (producers) and the apex
represents the highest trophic level (tertiary or top-level consumers).
Characteristics of Ecological Pyramids:
• All calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers should consider all organisms
at their respective trophic levels. Generalizations based on a few individuals are not
accurate.
• Organisms can occupy multiple trophic levels simultaneously, depending on their
feeding relationships and dietary habits.
Trophic Levels:
• Trophic levels represent functional levels rather than species. A single species can
occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem. For example, a sparrow
can be a primary consumer when it eats plant-based foods and a secondary consumer
when it preys on insects and worms.
Typical Pyramid Characteristics:
• In most ecosystems, ecological pyramids of number, biomass, and energy are upright.
This means that producers are more numerous and have greater biomass than
herbivores, and herbivores have more individuals and biomass than carnivores.
• Energy decreases as you move up the trophic levels in an upright energy pyramid
because some energy is lost as heat at each transfer.
Exceptions and Inversions:
• Exceptions to these generalizations can occur. For example, when considering the
number of insects feeding on a large tree, the pyramid of numbers may appear
inverted. When accounting for the number of small birds feeding on insects and the
number of larger birds consuming the smaller ones, the pyramid shape changes.
• In the sea, the pyramid of biomass may be inverted because the biomass of fishes
exceeds that of phytoplankton. This can be explained by considering the high turnover
rate and rapid reproduction of phytoplankton.
• The pyramid of energy is always upright and can never be inverted because energy is
lost as heat at each transfer. Each bar in the energy pyramid represents the amount of
energy present at each trophic level in a given time or annually per unit area.
Limitations of Ecological Pyramids:
1. No Consideration for Species in Multiple Trophic Levels: Ecological pyramids do
not account for species that may belong to two or more trophic levels simultaneously.
In reality, many species have flexible dietary habits and can occupy multiple trophic
positions within the same ecosystem.
2. Assumption of Simple Food Chains: Ecological pyramids often assume a simple
linear food chain, which is not a common occurrence in nature. In reality, ecosystems
are characterized by complex food webs with multiple interconnected species and
trophic levels. These intricate relationships are not represented in the pyramidal
structure.
3. Neglect of Saprophytes: Ecological pyramids typically do not include saprophytes,
which are organisms responsible for decomposing dead organic matter. Saprophytes
play a crucial role in nutrient recycling and ecosystem functioning by breaking down
detritus and returning essential nutrients to the ecosystem. However, they are often
excluded from ecological pyramids, even though their contribution is significant.
-----------------------------------------