Data Communication and Networking

OSI Reference Model

1. OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.

2. OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.

3. OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984,
and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

4. OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.

5. Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model

1. The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

2. The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues, and they are
implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the end user. Both the end
user and the application layer interact with the software applications. An upper layer refers to
the layer just above another layer.

3. The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link layer and the
physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is the lowest layer
of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible
for placing the information on the physical medium.

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 Data Communication and Networking

OSI model provides following services

1. Provides peer-to-peer logical services with their physical implementation

2. Provides standards for communication between systems
3. Define point of interconnection for the exchange of information between system
4. Each layer should perform a well-defined function
5. Narrow the options in order to increase the ability to communicate without expensive
conversation and translation between products

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 Data Communication and Networking

Layered Architecture
• The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.

• Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.

• It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between subsystems.

• It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to higher
layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any modification in a
layer will not affect the other layers.

• The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to network.
However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a higher layer and
hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.

• The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.

• In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the layer n
on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-n protocol.

• In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one machine to layer n
of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data to the layer immediately just below
it, until the lowest layer is reached.

• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication takes place.

• In a layered architecture, unmanageable tasks are divided into several small and manageable
tasks.

• The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface. A Layered
architecture provides a clean-cut interface so that minimum information is shared among
different layers. It also ensures that the implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by
another implementation.

• A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Advantages of layered architecture

1. The main aim behind building a layered architecture is to reduce the design complexity of
computer network
2. Layering can resolve the complicated task by breaking into smaller and manageable pieces.
3. The functionalities are carried out in logical sequential manner.
4. Implementation of layer can be changed without disturbing other layers as the details of all
the layers are hidden from each other.
5. Living allows reuse in a way that once a common functionalities is implemented in a lower
layer the players can share it.

Disadvantages of layered architecture

1. Architecture can sometimes result in a poor performance

2. Layering is a kind of information hiding

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 Data Communication and Networking

Layers in OSI Model

1. Physical Layer

2. Data-Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer

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 Data Communication and Networking

1. Physical Layer
1. The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node
to another node.

2. It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

3. It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

4. It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.

5. It also deals with procedures and functions required for transmission.

The position of physical layer with transmission medium and the next layer ( Data Link Layer) is
shown as below.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Functions of Physical Layer

1. Physical Characteristics of interface and media

The design issue of digital near consider the characteristics of interface between devices and the
transmission media

2. Representation of Bits

Physical layer encodes the bit stream into electrical or optical signal.

3. Data Rate

Physical layer defines the duration of a bit which is called data rate or transmission rate.

4. Synchronisation of bits

The transmission rate and receiving rate must be se this is done by synchronizing clock at sender and
receiver physical layer perform this function

5. Physical Topology

Physical layer specifies the way in which the different devices or node are arranged in a network that is
bus star and mesh.

6. Multiplexing

Physical layer can use Different techniques of multiplexing in order to improve the channel efficiency.

7. Circuit Switching

Physical layer also provides the circuit switching to interconnect different network.

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 Data Communication and Networking

2. Data Link Layer

1. This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

2. It defines the format of the data on the network.

3. It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.

4. It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a local
network.

It contains two sub-layers:

Logical Link Control Layer

1. It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the receiver that is
receiving.
2. It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
3. It also provides flow control.

Media Access Control Layer

1. A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control layer and the
network's physical layer.
2. It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Functions of Data Link Layer

1. Link Establishment and Termination

It is establishment and terminates the logical link between notes.

2. Physical Addressing

After creating frames data link layer a physical address ( MAC address) of sender and receiver in
the header of each frame.

3. Framing

The frames received from network layer are divided into manageable data units called frames.

4. Frame Sequencing

It transmits or receives in sequentially.

5. Frame Delaminating

Data link layer provides and recognizers frame boundaries.

6. Flow Control

When the rate of the data transmitted and rate of the data reception by receiver is not same.
Some data may be lost. The data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent
overwhelming receiver.

7. Error Control

Data link layer incorporate reliability to the physical layer adding mechanism to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frame.

8. Access Control

When multiple devices are connected to the same the data link layer determine which device
has control over link.

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 Data Communication and Networking

3. Network Layer
1. It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.

2. It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the network
conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.

3. The Network layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.

4. Routers are the layer 3 device; they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing
services within an internetwork.

5. The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols. Examples
of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Functions of Network Layer

1. Logical – Physical Address mapping

It translates logical addresses for names into physical addresses.

2. Internetworking

One of the main responsibilities of a network layer is to provide Internetworking

between different networks. It provides logical connection between different type of network.

It is because of this layer we can combine various different network to form a bigger
network.

3. Logical Addressing

Data link layer implements physical addressing when a package fastest network boundaries and
address in system is needed to distinguish source and destination network layer performs these
functions. the network layer adds a header to the packet of upper layer includes the logical
address in of sender and receiver.

4. Routing

Network layer route or switch the packets to its final destination in an internetwork.

5. Packetizing

The network layer receive data from multiple layer and create its own products by encapsulating
these packets. The process is known as packetizing. This packetizing is written by internet
protocol [IP] that defines its own packet format.

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 Data Communication and Networking

4. Transport Layer
1. The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in which
they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
2. The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
3. It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known as
segments.
4. This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point connection
between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Functions of Transport Layer

1. Port Addressing

Computer performs several operations simultaneously. Process to process delivery means

specific process on other computer.

The transport layer header therefore includes port address.

Network layer deliver packets to the desired computer and transport layer gets messages to the
correct process on that computer.

2. Segmentation and Reassembly

A message is divided into segments each segment contains a sequence number which enables
transport layer to reassemble at destination.

3. Connection Control

Transport layer performs connectionless or connection oriented services with the destination
machine.

4. Flow Control

Transport layer performs end to end flow control while data link layer perform it across the link.

5. Error Control

Error control at this layer is performed on 10th basis rather than across the link. the transport
layer in sure error free transmission

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 Data Communication and Networking

5. Session Layer
• The session layer is the 5th layer of the OSI model.

• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction between
communicating devices.

• Session layer allows two applications between communication running on different computers to
establish use and end a connection called session.

• Session layer performs name recognition and security.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Functions of Session Layer

1. Session Establishment, Maintenance and Termination

It allows to application processes on different lines to establish used and terminate connection
called session.

2. Session Support

It performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate over a network, performing
security name recognition logging and so on.

3. Dialog Control

Dialogue control is the function of session layer that determines which device will communicate
first and the amount of data will be sent.

When device is connected but the session layer is responsible for determining which device
participating in the communication will transmit at a given time as well as as controlling the
amount of data that can be sent in transmission.

4. Synchronisation

The session layer is also responsible for adding checkpoint or markers within the messages.

This process inserting markers to the stream of data is known as dialogue separation

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 Data Communication and Networking

6. Presentation Layer
• It serves as a translator. Presentation layer of OSI model and it is responsible for data conversion
and encryption.

• Presentation layer may translate data from format used by the application layer into a common
format at the sending station and they translate common format at to a format known to the
application layer at the receiving station.

Functions of Presentation Layer

1. Translation

Different computers used encoding system. Interoperability between the two encoding system.

2. Encoding, Decoding

Encoding is the process in which data is converted to the unreadable format with certain
encoding technique. Decoding is the process in which encoded ta is converted into the original
data.

3. Encryption

Encryption is transforming sender information to other form to ensure privacy while

transmission. Decryption is a reverse process.

4. Compression

Compression is a technique of reducing number of bits required to represent the data.

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 Data Communication and Networking

7. Application Layer
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access network
service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application Layer

1. Network Virtual Terminal
It allows user to log on to a remote host.

2. File Transfer Access and Management

This application allows a user to access files in a remote computer ( to make changes or read
data ), to retrieve files from a remote computer, and to manage our control files in a remote
computer.

3. Email Service
This application provides the basis for email forwarding and storage.

4. Remote Login
This layer allows login into a host which is remote.

5. Network Abstraction
Provide and abstraction of the underlying network to an end user and an application.

6. Directory Services
This application provides distributed database sources and access for global Information about
various object and services

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 Data Communication and Networking

TCP/IP Model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.

• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer and physical layer.

• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.

• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Characteristics of TCP/IP

1. Share Data Transfer:

The TCP allows applications to create channels of communications across a

network. It also permits a message to be separated into smaller packets before they are
transmitted over the web and after that collected in the right order at the destination address.
So, it guarantees the solid transmission of data across the channel.

2. Internet Protocol:

The IP address tells the packets the address and route so that they reach the
proper destination. It includes a strategy that empowers portal computers on the internet-
connected to arrange forward the message after checking the IP address.

3. Reliability:

The most vital feature of TCP is solid data delivery. In arrange to supply unwavering
quality, TCP must recover information that’s harmed, misplaced, copied, or conveyed out of
arranging by the Arrange Layer.

4. Multiplexing:

Multiplexing can be achieved through the number of ports.

5. Connections:

Before application forms can send information by utilizing TCP, the devices must
set up a connection. The associations are made between the harbor numbers of the sender and
the collector devices.

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 Data Communication and Networking

Layered structure of TCP/IP

TCP IP is not 1 protocol but is a suite of may protocol the protocol define application
transport control networking routing and network management.
Figure shows TCP IP reference model. It is a hierarchical model that is there are multiple layer and
hair layer protocol supported by lower layer protocol.

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 Data Communication and Networking

1. Application Layer

Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI model.
The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means the OSI application
layer allows users to interact with other software application.

Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating component.

The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope of the OSI model.

Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login, etc.

The functions of the Application Layers are:

 Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource

availability, and synchronizing communication.
 It allows users to log on to a remote host
 This layer provides various e-mail services
 This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

Application Layer Protocol

1. HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. This protocol allows the user to access the data over the
World Wide Web. It can be used in the hypertext environment and send data in the form of plain
texts, audio, and video.

2. SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol, which manages devices over the internet.

3. SMTP – Single Mail Transfer Protocol. This protocol manages the sending and receiving of emails

4. DNS – Domain Name System, it maps the hostnames to the host IP address which are connected
to the internet.

5. TELNET – Terminal Network, to establish the connection between the local computer and the
remote computer.

6. FTP – File Transfer Protocol, used for transmitting of files from one computer to another.

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 Data Communication and Networking

2. Host to Host Transport Layer

Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process on
a source system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted using single or multiple
networks, and also maintains the quality of service functions.

It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the
messages which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are
delivered error-free and in sequence.

Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control,
and segmentation or de-segmentation.

The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends
the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.

The functions of the Transport Layers:

 It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and numbers them to make
a sequence.
 Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the
destination machine.
 It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be
retransmitted.

The Protocols Present in Transport Layer

1. UDP – User Datagram Protocol. It tells the user about the presence of error. This protocol
provides end-to-end transmission of data.

2. TCP – Transmission Control Protocol. This protocol is active for the duration of the transmission
of data. It from a virtual circuit between sender and receiver. At the sender side, the protocol
breakdown the data in the form of small units called segments. Each segment is associated with
a sequence number which helps in reordering the segments from the original message.

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 Data Communication and Networking

3. Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layes of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a
network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any
computer still they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.

The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable
length data sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.

Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable network
layer protocol.

Protocols Present in Internet Layer

1. IP Protocol – this is the most significant protocol of TCP/IP protocol suite. To identify the device
over the internet and ti establish the internetwork routing, this protocol implements logical host
addresses called the IP addresses for each host device.

2. ARP – Address Resolution Protocol. This protocol finds the physical addresses from the IP
addresses.

4. The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also called a
network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent using the network.

It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which directly
interface with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair cables.

A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI reference
model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. This layer is
responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.

The protocol like Ethernet ATM, Neighbour Discovery protocol [NDP], 802.3 at this layer performs
three distinct functions.

1. Defines how to use network to transmit a a frame which is the data unit unit pass across the

physical connection

2. The exchange data between the computer and the physical network

3. They deliver data between two devices on the same network

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 Data Communication and Networking

Data Link Layer

 In the OSI model, the data link layer is a 4th layer from the top and 2nd layer from the bottom.
 The communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as links, and in order to
move the datagram from source to the destination, the datagram must be moved across an
individual link.
 The main responsibility of the Data Link Layer is to transfer the datagram across an individual
link.
 The Data link layer protocol defines the format of the packet exchanged across the nodes as well
as the actions such as Error detection, retransmission, flow control, and random access.
 The Data Link Layer protocols are Ethernet, token ring, FDDI and PPP.
 An important characteristic of a Data Link Layer is that datagram can be handled by different link
layer protocols on different links in a path. For example, the datagram is handled by Ethernet on
the first link, PPP on the second link.

Following services are provided by the Data Link Layer:

1. Framing & Link access: Data Link Layer protocols encapsulate each network frame within a Link
layer frame before the transmission across the link. A frame consists of a data field in which
network layer datagram is inserted and a number of data fields. It specifies the structure of the
frame as well as a channel access protocol by which frame is to be transmitted over the link.
2. Reliable delivery: Data Link Layer provides a reliable delivery service, i.e., transmits the network
layer datagram without any error. A reliable delivery service is accomplished with transmissions
and acknowledgements. A data link layer mainly provides the reliable delivery service over the
links as they have higher error rates and they can be corrected locally, link at which an error
occurs rather than forcing to retransmit the data.
3. Flow control: A receiving node can receive the frames at a faster rate than it can process the
frame. Without flow control, the receiver's buffer can overflow, and frames can get lost. To
overcome this problem, the data link layer uses the flow control to prevent the sending node on
one side of the link from overwhelming the receiving node on another side of the link.
4. Error detection: Errors can be introduced by signal attenuation and noise. Data Link Layer
protocol provides a mechanism to detect one or more errors. This is achieved by adding error
detection bits in the frame and then receiving node can perform an error check.
5. Error correction: Error correction is similar to the Error detection, except that receiving node not
only detect the errors but also determine where the errors have occurred in the frame.
6. Half-Duplex & Full-Duplex: In a Full-Duplex mode, both the nodes can transmit the data at the
same time. In a Half-Duplex mode, only one node can transmit the data at the same time.

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 Data Communication and Networking

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 Data Communication and Networking

Types of Communication Links-

In computer networking,

 Communication links enable the stations to communicate with each other.

 Stations may communicate using the following types of links-

1. Point to Point Link-

 Point to Point link is a dedicated link that exists between the two stations.
 The entire capacity of the link is used for transmission between the two connected stations
only.
 Depending upon the Type of Channel, the data flow takes place between the stations.

Example-

2. Broadcast Link-

 Broadcast link is a common link to which multiple stations are connected.

 The capacity of the link is shared among the connected stations for transmission.

Example-

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