psych: chapter 3 (sensations)
SENSATION
• Sense organs:
• Eyes, ears, nose, skin, and tongue.
THREE DEFINITIONS:
1. Transduction - refers to the process in which a sense organ changes, or
transforms, physical energy into electrical signals that become neural impulses,
which may be sent to the brain for processing.
2. Adaptation - refers to the decreasing response of the sense organs, the more
they are exposed to a continuous level of stimulation.
3. Sensations versus perceptions
• Sensations - relatively meaningless bits of information that result when the
brain processes electrical signals that come from the sense organs.
• Perception - meaningful sensory experiences that result after the brain combines
hundreds of sensations.
EYE: VISION
Why cant we see radio waves?
INVISIBLE-TOO SHORT
• These waves are invisible to the human eye because their lengths are too short to
stimulate our receptors
VISIBLE-JUST RIGHT
•THE VISIBLE SPECTRUM - One particular segment of electromagnetic energy that we
can see because the waves are the right length to stimulate receptors in the eyes.
INVISIBLE - TOO LONG
• too long to stimulate the receptors in the eye
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION:
2 Light waves.
The problem
with light waves is that after they strike an object, such as a giraffe, they are
reflected back in a broad beam. You cannot see the giraffe unless your eyes change
this broad beam of light waves into a narrow, focused one. Your eye has two struc-
tures, the cornea and the lens, that bring an image into focus, much as a camera
does.
3 Cornea.
The broad beam of light reflected from the giraffe passes first through the cornea.
The cornea is the rounded, transparent covering over the front of your eye. As the
light waves pass through the cornea, its curved surface bends, or focuses, the
waves into a narrower beam.
4 Pupil.
After passing through the cor-nea, light waves next go through the pupil.
The pupil is a round opening at the front of your eye that allows light waves to
pass into the eye's interior.
Your pupil grows larger or smaller because of a muscle called the iris.
5 Iris.
The opening
of the pupil is surrounded by the iris.
Iris - circular muscle that surrounds the pupil" and controls the amount of light
entering the e In dim light, it relaxes, allowing more light to enter - the pupil
dilates; in bright light, the iris constricts, allowing less light to enter- the
pupil constricts. The iris muscle contains the pigm that gives your eye its
characteristic color.
6 Lens.
After passing through the cornea and pupil, light waves reach the lens.
The lens is a transparent, oval structure whose curved surface bends and focuses
light waves into an even narrower beam. The lens is attached to muscles that adjust
the curve of the lens, which, in turn, adjusts the focusing.
7 Retina.
Although light waves have been bent and focused, transduction hasn't yet occurred.
That is about to change as light waves reach the retina.
The retina, located at the very back of the
tis eyeball, is a thin film that contains cells that are extremely sensitive to
light. These light-sensitive cells, called photoreceptors, begin the process of
transduction by absorbing light waves.
EYEBALL’S SHAPE AND LASER EYE SURGERY:
Normal Vision.
Shape of your eyeball if primarily determined by genetic instructions.
If your eyeball is shaped so that objects are perfectly focused on the back of your
retina (black X), then distant objects will appear clear and sharp and you will
have very good vision (20/20).
Nearsighted.
Eyeball is too long.
Nearsightedness (myopia) results when the eyeball is too long so that objects are
focused at a point in front of the retina (black X). Near objects are clear but
distant objects appear blurry.
Farsighted.
Eyeball that is too short.
Farsightedness (hyperopia) - the eyeball is too short so that objects are focused
at a point slightly behind the retina (black X).
Distant objects are clear but near objects appear blurry.
Eye surgery
LASIK - the surface of the eye is folded back and a laser is used to reshape the
exposed cornea so that Right wanes are correctly bend and focused on the retina.
RETINA:
1 Each eye has about 120 million rods, most located in the retina's periphery.
Rods are photoreceptors that contain a single chemical, called rhodopsin (row-DOP-
sin), which is activated by small amounts of light. Because rods are extremely
light sensitive, they allow us to see in dim light, but to see only black, white,
and shades of gray.
To see color, we need the cones. Each eye has about 6 million cones, most located
in the retina's fovea (Goldstein, 2010).
Cones are photoreceptors that contain three chemicals called opsins (OP-sins),
which are activated in bright light and allow us to see color. Unlike rods, cones
are wired individually to neighboring cells; this one-on-one system of relaying
information allows us to see fine details.
VISUAL PATHWAYS: EYE TO BRAIN
1. Optic Nerve - nerve impulses flows through the optic nerve then exists from the
back of the eye which creates a blind spot. Optic nerves crosses over and makes a
stop at the thalamus to do some initial processing which then relays the impulses
to the back of the occipital lobe in the left and right hemispheres.
2. Primary Visual Cortex - transform nerve impulses into simple visual sensations
such as textures, lines, and colors.
*Blindness - tiny black spots painted on the lens when primary visual cortex is
damaged.
3. Visual Association Areas - adds meaning or associations.
*Visual Agnosia - difficulty in assembling simple visual sensations into more
complex, meaningful images.
COLOR VISION
Making Colors From Wavelengths
1.A ray of sunlighe is called wite lige because it contains all the lighr waves in
the visible spectrum which is what we see.
[Link] whire lighi passes shrough a prism, ir is separare into light waves thar vary
in length. Narure create prisms in the form of raindrops, which separare the
passing sunlight into waves of color char we call a rainbow
3. Our visual system transforms light waves of various lengths into millions of
different colors.
Shorter wavelengths as shades of violet, blue, and green.
Longer wavelength as shades of yellow, orange, and red.
Trichromatic Theory
• There are three different kinds of cones in the retina, and each cone contains
one of three different light-sensitive chemicals, called opsins.
Each of the three opsins is most responsive to wavelengths that correspond to each
of the three primary colors:
• Blue, green, and red.
Opponent-Process Theory
• Ganglion cells in the retina and cells in the thalamus respond to two pairs of
colors - red-green and blue-yellow. When these cells are excited, they respond to
one color of the pair; when inhibited, they respond to complementary pair.
• Afterimage - visual sensation that continues after the original stimulus is
removed.
Color Blindness
•The inability to distinguish two or more shades in the color spectrum.
• Monochromats - total color blindness: world look like black and white movies.
Having only rods or only one kind of functioning cone.
• Dichromats - have trouble distinguishing red from green because they just have
two kinds of cones. Inherited genetic defect, found mostly in males, results in
seeing mostly shades of blue and yellow but differs in severity.
EAR: AUDITION
STIMULUS: SOUND WAVES
Sound Waves- stimuli for hearing, resemble ripples of different sizes.
Travels through space with varying heights and frequency.
• Amplitude - height, the distance from the bottom to the top of a sound wave.
• Loudness - subjective experience of a sound's intensity. Brain calculates
loudness from specific physical energy.
• Frequency - the number of sound waves that occur within 1 secor
• Pitch - subjective experience of a sound being high or low, whic the brain
calculates from specific physical stimuli, in this case the speed or frequency of
sound waves.
Measuring Sound waves:
• Decibel - unit to measure loudness. 0 to 140 decibels which can produce pain and
permanent hearing loss.
• 0 - hybrid car operating on battery only.
• 30 - whisper, quiet library, gasoline-only car idling in neutral.
• 60 - conversation, air conditioner at 20 feet
• 80 - heavy city traffic, alarm clock at 2 feet, subway, MP3 player/iPod
• 100 - chain saw, jackhammer, baby screaming, inside of racing car
• 120 - rock concert near speakers, thunderclap, record-setting human yell
• 140 - jet engine, gun muzzle blast, firecracker explosion
Parts of ear:
OUTER, MIDDLE, AND INNER EAR
1. OUTER EAR
• Consists of three structures: external ear, auditory canal, and tympanic
membrane.
1. External ear - oval-shaped structure that protrudes from the side of the head.
Pick up sound waves and send them down a long, narrow tunnel called:
2. Auditory canal - long tube that funnels sound waves down its length so that the
waves strike a thin, taut membrane-the eardrum, or tympanic membrane.
3. Tympanic membrane - taut, thin structure commonly called the eardrum. Waves
causes it to vibrate then passes vibrations on to the first three small bones to
which it is attached.
2. MIDDLE EAR
• Bony cavity that is sealed at each end by membranes. Two membranes are connected
by three small bones.
• OSSICLES
• The three tiny bones, referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.
• Acts like levels that greatly amplify the vibrations, which, in turn, cause the
attached oval window to vibrate.
• HAMMER - sends vibrations to the attached anvil
• ANVIL - further sends vibration to the attached stirrup
• STIRRUP - makes the connection with the end membrane, the oval window.
3. INNER EAR
• Contains two main structures: the cochlea and vestibular system.
• COCHLEA - bony coiled exterior that resembles a snail's shell. Contains the
receptors for hearing, and its function is transduction - transforming vibrations
into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain for processing into auditory
information.
• HAIR CELLS - miniature hair-shaped cells that stick up from the cochlea's bottom
membrane called the BASILAR - bends the hair cells that generates electrical forces
that trigger nerve impulses.
• AUDITORY NERVE - band of fibers that carry nerve impulses (electrical signals) to
the auditory cortex of the brain for processing.
AUDITORY BRAIN AREAS:
• PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX - transforms nerve impulses (electrical signals) into
basic auditory sensations, such as meaningless sounds and tones of various pitches
and loudness.
• AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA - receives meaningless, auditory sensations in the form
of neural impulses from neig auditory cortex. Combines meaningless auditory
sensations perceptions, which are meaningful melodies, songs, words, or sentences.
AUDITORY CUES
Calculating Pitch
•Frequency Theory - applies to low-pitched sounds, rate at which nerve impulses
reach the brain determines how low the pitch of a sound is.
•Place Theory - brain determines medium to higher pitches sounds on the basis of
the place on the basilar membrane where maximum vibration occurs.
Calculating Loudness
•Loudness - primarily from the frequency or rate of how slowly nerve impulses
arrive from the auditory nerve.
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
•Locuted above the cochlea in the inner ear, includes three semicircular canals,
resembling bony archies, which are see an different angles. Filled with fluids that
moves in
MOTION SICKNESS
•Feelings of discomfort, nausea, and dizziness in a moving vehicle, is beliered to
develop when there is a sensory mismatch between the information from the
vestibular system and the information reported by your [Link] to movements
of your head.
MENIERE'S DISEASE
• Malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibulars system. Attacks of
dizziness, nausea, vomiting, spinning, and piercing buzzing sounds.
VERTIGO
• Dizziness and nausea
•Malfunction of the semicircular canals of the vestibular system.
CHEMICAL SENSES
TASTE
• Chemical sense stimulated by chemicals
1. Five Basic Tastes:
1. Sweet
2. Salty
3. Sour
4. Bitter
5. Umami - meaty-cheesy taste found in cheese, meat, pizza, and MSG.
*TASTE*
• TASTE BUDS - chemicals dissolved in the saliva activate the
Paste buds which produce nerve impulses that eventually reach areas in the brains
parietal lobe. The brain transforms these nerve impulses into sensations of taste.
Taste buds change dissolved chemicals into electrical signals.
FLAVOR
• Experienced when we combine the sensations of taste and smell.
SMELL OR OLFACTION
• OLFACTION
•Called a chemical sense for its stimuli are various chemicals that are carried by
the air.
• Purpose is to intensify the taste of food.
OLFACTORY CELLS
• The receptors for smell. Triggers nerve impulses that travel to the brain, which
interprets the impulses as different smells.
TOUCH
• Includes pressure, temperature, and pain. Detected by half-dozen miniature
sensors that are receptors for the sense of touch.
RECEPTORS IN THE SKIN:
•SKIN - the body's largest organ.
LAYERS OF THE SKIN:
•OUTERMOST LAYER - thin film of dead cells containing no receptors.
•MIDDLE AND FATTY LAYERS - variety of receptors: majority are hair receptors.
HAIR RECEPTORS
•Free nerve endings that are wrapped around the base of each hair follicle.
•Respond or fire with a burst of activity when hairs are first bent.
•Ifhais remain bent for a period of time, receptors cease firing, example of
sensory adaptation.
•FREE NERVE ENDING - near the bottom of the outer layer, a group of threadlike
extensions. Slow bursts for temperature and fast for pain.
•PACINIAN CORPUSCLE - the fatty layer of skin and the largest touch sensor.
DISGUST
•Triggered by the presence of a variety of contaminated or offensiy things: food,
body products, and gore.
•We show disgusts by closing the eyes, narrowing the nostrils, curling the lips
downward, and sometimes sticking out the tongue.
*PAIN*
•Unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that may result from tissue damage,
one's thoughts or beliefs, or environmental stressors.
GATE CONTROL THEORY
• Nonpainful nerve impulses (shifting attention) compete with pain impulses
(headache) in trying to reach the brain.
ENDORPHINS
•Chemicals produced by the brain and secreted in response to injury or severe
physical or psychological stress.
ACUPUNCTURE
•Procedure in which a trained practitioner inserts thin needlos into various points
on the body's surface and then manually twirls or electrically stimulates the
needles.
• Effective for nausea, headaches, and some kinds of pain.