11th edition

Chapter 4

Planning Your
Research Project

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 What does a project ‘look’ like ?

• Has a clear and specific objective

• Is someone’s responsibility

• Is any sort of planned undertaking which is finite

and bounded

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 Research Design

• Design = Overall structure for the study

 The procedures the researcher follows
 The data the researcher collect
 The data analyses the researcher conducts

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 Planning a Research Project
• Here are the steps you will need to plan your research project
 Find a topic to research
 Start a log book
 Do some reading and compile a list of at least three good
references on the topic
 Come up with a question in that area
 Find a mentor
 State the hypothesis to be tested (In the format:
If…then…because…)
 Start collecting information for your: Reference list,
Acknowledgements, Introduction etc.
 Think about how to present the display board
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 Planning a General Approach

• Think broadly about the problem as arising out of

a particular area
• Are you studying
•People
•Things
•Records
•Thoughts & ideas
•Dynamics & energy

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 Practical Questions in Planning Research
• Simplifying complexquestions to generate a
manageable research question
• Deciding the nature of the variables you want to
investigate
• Finding published research relating to your research
question through a literature search
• Deciding how you will measure your variables
• Understanding the nature of the participants to be tested
in the research
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 Conducting Your Study

• Deciding on the type of research

 Descriptive
 Survey
 Correlational
 Experimental
• Evaluating ethical issues of your research
• Determining the Research Setting
 Laboratory (often theoretical)
 Natural environment (often applied)
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 Planning a General Approach

Think about the kinds of data you need to address your

problem
Do you need/ can you find participants
Do you have the right equipment and skills
Do you know how to interpret the data and draw
conclusions from them

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 Research Planning: Selecting a Particular
Research M ethodology
• Planning
 Determining the general approach to a study
 M ay be similar across disciplines
• M ethodology
 The techniques one uses to collect and analyze data
 M ay be specific to a particular academic discipline

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 Choosing Your Methodology
Research Methodologies
Observational Research— Recording naturallyoccurring behavior withoutintervention
or manipulation ofvariables
Correlational Research— Identifying whether differentbehaviors,thoughts,and attitudes
change together in predictable ways
Experimental Research— Manipulating the research setting to identifycausesof
behavior
Quasi- experimental research— Comparing existing groupsto see iftheydiffer
Survey research— Asking respondentsto answer questionson questionnaires,
inventories,and tests
Case study research— In-depth research ofa single individual or a few people without
anymanipulation ofthe environment
Longitudinal research— Monitoring behavior ofa group over an extended period

Archival research— Using existing information (e.g.,documents,newspaper reports,

etc.)to addressbehavioral issues
Qualitative research— Studying people in their natural environmentdescriptively
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 Linking Data and Methodology

•Quantitative methods
Involve collecting numerical data
•Qualitative methods
Involve collecting textual or image-
based data
•Mixed methods
Use both quantitative and qualitative methods
in the same study

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 To Determine an Approach, First Ask
Yourself These Questions:
• What is my purpose?
• What is the nature of the process?
• What are the data like/how are they collected?
• How are data analyzed?
• How are the findings communicated?

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 Also Consider These Issues:
• The extent to which you are willing to interact with the
people in your study
• The extent to which you feel comfortable working without
much structure
• Your ability to organize and draw inferences from a large
body of information
• Your writing skills

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 Also Consider These Issues:
• Your comfort with the assumptions of the qualitative
tradition
• The audience for your study
• The nature of the research question
• The extensiveness of the related literature
• The depth of what you want to discover
• The amount of time you have available for conducting the
study

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 Purpose of a research talk

Is not to Is to
• Impress the audience • Give the audience a
• Tell them all you know sense of what your
about a subject idea/work is
• Present every little • M ake them want to read
detail of your work your paper
• Get feedback on your
work

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 Choosing Your M ethodology
Why Methodology is Important

Different materials can lead to different outcomes

Awareness of the effect of your materials is critical

Different types of participants can generate different results

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Differing Approaches in Different Areas of
Psychology
• Different approaches in different journals
• Theoretical research journals
 Report laboratory research much of the time
 Rely on experimental approaches
 Feature college students as participants
• Applied research journals often report
 Report on laboratory research much of the time
 Rely on non-experimental approaches
 Feature people in the working world as participants

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Differing Approaches in Different Areas of
Psychology
M aking choices in your research design
• Choices are based on practicalities
 How limited is your time, energy, and money?
 Can you manipulate an environment (laboratory or
applied) to your desire?
 How simple a research setting make sense for your
research

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The Nature and Role of Data in Research

• Data are pieces of information that help form a

bigger picture
• Data are transient — what is true at any point in
time may not be true at another point in time

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The Nature and Role of Data in Research

• Data may be primary or secondary

 Primary data are closest to the truth (the source)
 Secondary data are derived from primary data
•Distorted by interpretations and communication

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 Planning for Data Collection

•What data are needed

•Where are the data located
•How will the data be obtained
•What limits will be placed on the nature of
acceptable data
•How will the data be interpreted

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 Introduction: Data Collection and
Descriptive Statistics
• Data collection
• Descriptive statistics
• Use of personal computers and software to analyze data

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Getting Ready for Data Collection

 Steps for data collection

 Information collection

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 The Data Collection Process (1of 2)

• The Ten Commandments of Data Collection

 Data collection process
 10commandments (Part I)
•Get permission from board to collect data
•Think about the type of data that has to be collected
•Think about from where the data has to be collected
•Ensure data collection form is clear and easy to use
•M ake duplicate copy of data file

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 The Data Collection Process (2of 2)

• The Ten Commandments of Data Collection

 10commandments (Part II)
•Do not rely on untrained people for data collection
•Plan a schedule for data collection
•Cultivate possible sources for participant pool
•Try to follow up on subjects who missed testing session
•Never discard original data

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 Descriptive Statistics (2of 3)

• Comparing Distributions of Scores

 Overview
 M ethods
• M easures of Central Tendency
 Three types of averages
 When to use which measure

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 Select a Research M ethodology

• Applied research • Experimental research

• Action research • Expost facto research
• Case study • Grounded theory research
• Survey research • Historical research
• Content analysis • Observation study
• Correlational research • Phenomenological research
• Design-based research • Quasi-experimental research
• Developmental research • Ethnography

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 Exploring Research
Ninth edition, Global Edition

Chapter 4
Measurement,
Reliability, and
Validity

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 M odules

• Introduction: M easurement, Reliability, and Validity

• The M easurement Process
• Levels of M easurement
• Reliability and Validity: Why They Are Very, Very Important
• Validity
• The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
• Closing (and Very Important) Thoughts
• Summary: M easurement, Reliability, and Validity

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 Learning Objectives
•Define measurement
•Compare the different levels of measurement in research
•Examine the reasons as to why reliability is an essential quality that
must be established before a hypothesis is tested
•Illustrate the different ways in which validity establishes the strength of
a good test
•Recognize that reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition of
validity
•Summarize the criticality of the measurement process in research

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Introduction: M easurement, Reliability, and
Validity
• Process of measurement is critical to any ongoing research
• M easurement should be reliable and valid to yield useful
results
• Clarity of what is being measured and what needs to be
measured is important

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 Considering the Validity
of Your M ethod
•Validity of the research project is defined as its
 Accuracy
 M eaningfulness, and
 Credibility

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 Internal Validity
• The extent to which the design and data of a research
study allow the researcher to draw accurate conclusions
about cause-and-effect and other relationships within
the data

Researchers must take precautions to eliminate other

possible explanations for the results

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Strategies to Increase Internal Validity

• A controlled laboratory study

• A double-blind experiment
• Unobtrusive measures
• Triangulation

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 External Validity
• The extent to which:
 results of a research study apply to situations beyond the
study itself
 conclusions can be generalized

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 Strategies to Increase External Validity
•Conduct the study in a real-life setting
•Use a representative sample
•Replicate the study in a different context

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Increasing Validity in Qualitative Research
• Triangulate
 Compare multiple data sources
• Spend time in the field
• Analyze outliers and contradictory instances
• Use thick description
• Acknowledge and address personal biases
• Seek respondent validation
 Take conclusions back to participants to evaluate
• Seek feedback from others
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 M easurement

• Limiting the data of any phenomenon—

substantial or insubstantial— so that those data
may be interpreted and, ultimately, compared to
a particular qualitative or quantitative standard

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 M easurement

• Limiting the data of any phenomenon—

substantial or insubstantial— so that those data
may be interpreted and, ultimately, compared to
a particular qualitative or quantitative standard

 Substantial = have physical substance.

 Insubstantial = exist only as concepts, ideas, opinions,
feelings, or other intangible entities.

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 M easurement

• Limiting the data of any phenomenon—

substantial or insubstantial— so that those data
may be interpreted and, ultimately, compared to
a particular qualitative or quantitative standard

 transformed into new discoveries, revelations, and

enlightenments.

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 M easurement

• Limiting the data of any phenomenon—

substantial or insubstantial— so that those data
may be interpreted and, ultimately, compared to
a particular qualitative or quantitative standard

 norms, averages, conformity to expected statistical

distributions, goodness of fit, accuracy of description

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 M easurement: Example
M easuring interpersonal dynamics in a small group
•Ask each person:
 Who do you like most,
 who do you like least, and
 who evokes neutral feelings
•Allow the researcher to identify patterns and draw
conclusions

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 Scales of M easurement
• A scale specifies the categories of measurement
• Scales ultimately dictate the statistical procedures (if
any) that can be used in processing numerical data

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 Nominal Scale

• M easures data by assigning names or dividing

into discrete categories
 Boys, girls
 North of M ain Street, South of M ain Street
• Statistical procedures
• M ode
• Percentage
• Chi-square test

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 Ordinal Scale
• Rank-order data as more/ higher or less/lower
• Think in terms of greater or less than
• Elementary, high school, college, or graduate education
• Unskilled, semiskilled, or skilled labor
• Statistical procedures = median, percentile rank, Spearman’s
rank-order correlation

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 Interval Scale
• Equal units of measurement
• Zero point established arbitrarily
• Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C) scales
• Rating scales, such as surveys, assumed to fall on
interval scales
• Statistical procedures = means, standard deviations,
Pearson product moment correlations

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 Ratio Scale
• Equal measurement units (similar to interval scale)
• Absolute zero point (0= total absence of the quality
being measured)
• Distance
• Ratio = can express values in terms of multiples and
fractional parts

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C
o
p
Figure The components of reliability.
y
r
i
g
h
t

©
2
0
1
8

P
e
a
r
s
o
Figure The ratio of true score to true score plus error
score forms the conceptual basis for reliability.
The Relationship Between Reliability and
Validity

 Relationship
 Example-2+ 2= ?
 End of argument

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 Summary & Comparison
• Nominal scale: One object is different from another
• Ordinal scale: One object is bigger or better or more of
anything than another
• Interval scale: One object is so many units (e.g., degrees,
inches) more than another
• Ratio scale: One object is so many times as big or bright or
tall or heavy as another

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 Validity & Reliability of M easurement
• Validity = the extent to which a measurement
instrument measures what it is intended to measure
• Reliability = the consistency with which a measurement
instrument yields a certain result when the entity being
measured hasn’t changed

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 Reliability

• Reliability is the consistency with which a measuring

instrument yields a certain result when the entity
being measured hasn’t changed.
• Instruments designed to measure social and
psychological characteristics (insubstantial
phenomena) tend to be even less reliable than those
designed to measure physical (substantial)
phenomena.

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 Determining the
Determining the Reliability
Reliabilityofofa a
MMeasurement
easurement Instrument
Instrument
• Interrater reliability
 the extent to which two or more individuals evaluating
the same product or performance give identical
judgments
• Test-retest reliability
 the extent to which a single instrument yields the same
results for the same people on two different occasions

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 Determining the
Determining the Reliability
Reliabilityofofa a
MMeasurement
easurement Instrument
Instrument
• Equivalent forms reliability
 The extent to which two different versions of the
same instrument yield similar results
• Internal consistency reliability
 The extent to which all of the items within a single
instrument yield similar results

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 Enhancing Reliability and Validity

• Goals: Reduce error, reduce bias

• Strategies for increasing reliability:
 Standardize the procedures
 Establish clear criteria
 Train the researchers well
• Strategies for increasing validity:
 Consult the literature
 Share drafts
 Conduct pilot studies

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 The Value of a Pilot Study
Pilot study: a brief exploratory investigation before the
main study to
•Try out particular procedures, measurement instruments, or
methods of analysis
•Determine the feasibility of the study
•Identify what approaches will and will not be effective in
solving the overall research problem

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 Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson
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 Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson
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Validity & Reliability of
Measurement

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Validity & Reliability of
Measurement

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Validity & Reliability of
Measurement

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Validity & Reliability of
Measurement

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Determining the Reliability of a
Measurement Instrument

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Determining the Reliability of a
Measurement Instrument

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Determining the Reliability of a
Measurement Instrument

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 Exploring Research
Ninth edition, Global Edition

Chapter 4
The Importance
ofPracticing
Ethics in
Research

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Introduction: The Importance of Practicing
Ethics in Research
• Consequences of not following important guidelines
• M oral and ethical responsibilities of researchers

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 Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues
• Participants must be protected from harm
 Benefits to participants must outweigh risks
 Participants should be debriefed

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 Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues
• Participation must be voluntary and informed
 Individuals know what they are being asked to do
 Individuals can decline without penalty
 Individuals know they can withdraw at any time without
penalty

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 Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues
• Participants have a right to privacy
 Data and information about participants are confidential
•Identifiable data should not be shared (even in class)
without written consent
 Names should be coded to ensure anonymity

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 Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues

• Researchers must be honest

 Data should be trustworthy
 Reports should be complete and accurate
 Contributors should be credited

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 Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues
• Research must be reviewed before data collection
begins
 Institutions maintain an IRB (review board) and
sometimes IACUC
•Scholars and researchers across disciplines
•Review proposals to assess risks and ensure that
participants’ rights are honored

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 Ethical Issues
Ethical Issues
• Researchers are expected to adhere to professional code
of conduct within their field
• Visit the homepage of your own professional
organization to learn more.

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 Summary:

•Two types of research: nonexperimental and

experimental

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Summary: Data Collection and Descriptive
Statistics
• Data collection is hard work
• Assembling data collected into a body of information is
important
• Organizing and applying fundamental descriptive tools to
make sense out of data collected

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Summary: M easurement, Reliability, and
Validity
• M easurement process is critical part
• Test without appropriate levels of reliability and validity is of
no use
• Poorly designed instruments may be misleading
• Look for established instruments
• Using established instruments would save time

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Summary: The Importance of Practicing
Ethics in Research
• Importance of following ethical guidelines of your
professional organization
• The Research Methods Knowledge Base
• Importance of ethics in research

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