NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Atoms are the unit of matter. IF all the atoms of a matter are identical then it
is called “Element".
If not identical then it called “Compound”. Generally atoms are electrically
neutral.

Structure of an ‘ATOM’:
An atom is a dynamic system. Three main particles of an atom are:
1. Proton. Positively Charged
2. Electron. Negatively Charged
3. Neutron. Neutral.
Protons and neutrons are combined together with strong nuclear force and
forms nucleus and the negatively charged electrons are moving around it.
Neutrons are neutral and they help the protons combine together.

Proton

Neutron

Nucleus

Electron

Hydrogen atom Helium atom

The particles inside the nucleus are commonly known as ‘Nucleons’. So

protons and neutrons are nucleons.
 Electron Charge: -1 𝟏
Mass:
𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟔
Proton Charge: +1 Mass: 1

Neutron Charge: 0 Mass : 1

Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, so mass of atom

means the mass of protons and neutrons.
The information of an atom is represented in the following way:

Mass number
(Protons + Neutrons)
4
2 He Symbol of the element

Atomic number
(Proton number)

Mass number (Nucleon Number): The total number of protons and neutrons
is called mass number, because these two particles have the most masses of
an atom.
Atomic Number (Proton number): The total number of protons inside a
nucleus is called the Atomic number. It also shows the total number of electrons
of a neutral atom.

Therefore: (Mass number) – (Atomic number) = Neutron number.

Atomic number = proton number = electron number

Thus all the information about an atom can be calculated from the mass number
and atomic number. If different symbols have the same atomic number then
they are same atom thus same element.

12 12 12 14 14
6A B 6C 6 D E
5 7
In the above symbols A, C and D are the same elements, as they have the
same atomic number 6. And from the atomic number it can be said that A, C
and D are the 6th, B is the 5th and E is the 7th element in the periodic table.

ISOTOPE: ‘Isotope means the same element with different masses.

The neutron number inside a nucleus of an atom can be different. And if the
neutron number varies the mass number also varies, but these atoms have the
same chemical properties as they are still the same element, only they become
more massive. This is called “Isotope”.

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

These three; Hydrogen, Deuterium and Tritium are Isotope of ‘Hydrogen’

because they are the same element with same chemical properties but with
different masses (different physical properties).
Radioactivity (or radioactive decay) is the spontaneous breaking of unstable
nucleus is called radioactivity. In radioactive decay, an ‘Alpha particle’ or a
‘Beta particle’ can be emitted and sometimes a gamma radiation can be
emitted after them.
The radioactive materials contain unstable nuclei that break (decay) to form an
isotope of another element; a gamma radiation is emitted with this decay to
leave the new isotope unexcited.
 The properties of Radiation and Particles
Type of Radiation Alpha particles Beta particles Gamma ray
Each alpha is two protons + Each beta particle is Gamma ray is the
two neutrons (it is identical an electron (created electromagnetic wave
to a nucleus of Helium-4) when a neutron similar to X-ray.
decays)

Relative charge:
compared with +2 -1 0
charge on proton
Mass High (compared with beta) Low No mass
Speed Up to 0.1  speed of light Up to 0.9  speed of Speed of light 3  10 8
m/s
light
Ionizing effect Strong Weak Very weak
Penetrating Effect Not very penetrating: can Penetrating but Very penetrating: never
be stopped by a thick sheet stopped by few completely stopped,
of paper, or by skin, or by millimeters of though lead and thick
few centimeters of air aluminum or other concrete will reduce
(approximately 5 ~ 6 cm in metal. intensity.
air)
Effects of fields Deflected by electric and Strongly deflected Not deflected by electric or
magnetic field by electric and magnetic fields
magnetic field
Properties of the Radiation:
1. Alpha Particle:
𝟒
i) Symbol: +𝟐𝜶

ii) It is a helium nucleus.

iii) Massive.
iv) Positively Charged (+2).
v) Highly ionizing.
vi) Less penetrating. It can be stopped by paper, skin, cloth.
vii) Short ranged, 5 to 6 cm in air.
viii) Less deflects in electric field and magnetic field.
ix) It has an effect on photographic film.

2. Beta Particle:
𝟎
i) Symbol: −𝟏𝜷
ii) It is a fast moving electron, coming out from the nucleus.
iii) Negligible mass.
iv) Negatively charged (-1).
v) Medium ionizing.
vi) Medium penetrating. It can be stopped by 5mm metal plate.
vii) Different ranged.
viii) Highly deflects in the electric field and magnetic field.
ix) It has an effect on photographic film.
 3. Gamma Radiation:

𝟎
i) Symbol: 𝟎𝜸

ii) It is a high energetic EM radiation, coming out from the nucleus.

iii) No mass.
iv) No charge.
v) Negligible ionizing.
vi) Highly penetrating. It can be stopped by 4cm thick lead block.
vii) Long ranged.
viii) No deflection in the electric field or magnetic field.
ix) It has an effect on the photographic film.

Penetration of the Radiations:

Alpha particle

𝟒
+𝟐𝜶

Beta particle

Gamma radiation

Paper
Aluminum sheet Lead Sheet
Background Radiation:
There is always a small amount of radiation present around us because of
radioactive materials in the environment. This is called “Background
Radiation”. This background radiation produces extra count in the GM
counter. Thus this background count rate must always be subtracted from the
count rate of the source. The main sources for this background radiation are
‘radon gas’, ground and buildings, medical, food and drink, cosmic ray,
THE DETECTION OF RADIATION
All radioactive radiation causes ionization and by using this ionization property
the radiation from the radioactive source can be detected.
The radiations have different penetrating power thus by checking their
penetrating power; the type of radiation can be identified.
Radiations have different range, thus by checking their range, type of radiation
can be identified.
Detecting type of radiation by electric field:
When an electric field is applied the radiation deflects. The alpha deflects less
to the negative plate, the beta deflects highly to the positive plate and the
gamma does not deflect at all.
Bq

Bq

Small amount of change in the count rate, so it is alpha radiation, as alpha

deflects less

Bq
Detecting type of radiation by magnetic field:
Alpha deflects less and beta deflects highly in the magnetic field and gamma
radiation does not deflect at all.
Deflection of alpha particle

SN
N
S

Deflection of beta particle:

SN
N
S
Photographic Film:
As the radiation have an effect on photographic film, thus photographic film
along with absorber can be used to identify the presence and type of radiation.
Radiation badge:
Radiation badge contains several sections with different absorber. There is a
thin photographic film inside the badge.

Section P is covered with thin black paper so that light cannot expose the film
but alpha particles can enter.
Section Q is covered with 5mm thick metal so that beta particles cannot enter
easily. Section R is covered with 4cm lead so the gamma radiation cannot enter
easily.
If a person faces excess alpha radiation, then only section P will be exposed.
If a person faces excess beta radiation then only section P and Q will be
exposed. And if a person faces gamma radiation then section P, Q, and R will
be exposed.
Thus by using photographic film radiation can be identified.
Ionizing Chamber:
All radiation causes ionization and by using ionizing property the presence of
radiation and type of radiation can be identified.
When liquid or gas becomes ionized they can conduct electricity. And by using
this property presence of radiation can be identified.

In an ionizing chamber two metal plates are connected with high voltage d.c.
supply. A sensitive ammeter is also connected in the circuit. The plates are kept
parallel with a small gap between them. Normally there is no current in the
circuit. If a radioactive source is placed near the gap then the radiation will
ionize the air between the gap, and there is a large surge of current in the
circuit, which indicates the presence of radiation.
There will always be a small negligible amount of current in the circuit without
any radioactive source; this is due to background radiation.
Large current = alpha radiation,
Medium current = beta radiation
Less current = gamma radiation
Negligible current = background radiation.
Again by placing paper, 5mm thick metal or 4cm thick lead in front of
radioactive source the types of radiation can be identified.
 Geiger Muller Tube (GM Tube).
Geiger-Muller (GM) tube can be used to measure the radiation.

Central wire Metal Cylindrical Tube

Radiation - - - - - -

+ + + + +++
- - - - - - + 450 D. C
Thin mica ‘Window’
+ + + + +++
: - supply
Inert Gas (Mainly argon) Rate meter
or Counter

G-M Tube with Rate meter (scalar).

The structure of a G-M tube along with the Rate meter is shown in the diagram.
The quartz window is very thin so the alpha particles can enter in the G-M tube.
When radiation enters into the tube it ionizes the gas inside, this sets a high
voltage Discharge (spark) inside the gas and a pulse of current in the circuit
and a reading in the rate meter.
G-M Counter can only show the presence of a radiation and its activity and by
putting absorber we can identify the type of radiation.

Inert gas
500V
Counter

G-M Tube
Discharging of Charged Electroscope:
A radioactive source is placed near a charged electroscope, the charged
electroscope loses charges and becomes discharges and the divergence of the
leaves falls. It happens for both positively charged and negatively charged
electroscope. It happens because the radioactive source ionizes air near the
electroscope and thus makes air conductor so the electroscope loses charges
through air and the divergence of the leaf falls.

- - - - - - ++ + + +

- + +
- - - - + + +
- - - + +
- - + + +
- +

Diagram: The radiation near the charged electroscope makes it neutralized

Count: The number of radioactive particles decay in a given time is called

count. It is just a number.

Count rate:
The number of radioactive particles decay in one second is called count rate.
The unit of count rate is becquerel (Bq)
Suppose in ‘t’ seconds the number of particles decay is ‘N’
Then the particles decay in one second is
𝑁
Count rate = 𝑡
𝟏𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕
1 Bq = 𝟏 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
Design an experiment to find the count rate of background radiation:
A Geiger Muller tube and counter is taken and the background count is
measured for different time interval in different direction. This procedure is
repeated several times, and count rate is calculated for each count. Now the
average is calculated with the consistent result. The answer is the background
count rate of that place.

Design an experiment to find the count rate from a source:

Apparatus needed: 1) G-M tube 2) Counter 3) Radioactive source 4) Stop watch
5) Meter rule.

Procedure: the background count rate is measured several times and average
is calculated with the consistent results. Then the count from the source is
measured and count rate is calculated. Now the background count rate is
subtracted from each count rate of the source. This is corrected count rate. The
corrected count rate is averaged with the consistent values. This is the count
rate of the source.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY:
All radioactive isotopes are unstable i.e. their nucleus breaks down
spontaneously and produces other different types of daughter nucleus. The
daughter nucleus and any emitted particles are called ‘Decay products’.

ALPHA DECAY:
When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus the nucleus changes into
different element. This is called alpha decay.
In an alpha decay:
-The mass number of the nucleus reduces by four, and atomic number reduces
by two.

𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟒
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 − +𝟐𝜶  𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 Or
𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟒 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 +𝟐𝜶 + 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏

General equation:
𝒎
𝒂𝑿 − 𝟒
+𝟐𝜶  𝒎−𝟒
𝒂−𝟐𝒀 Or

𝒎 𝟒 𝒎−𝟒
𝒂𝑿 +𝟐𝜶 + 𝒂−𝟐𝒀

The mass number of both the sides will be same. As the alpha particle is coming
out from the nucleus the minus sigh is used. From the above equation it is clear
that when an alpha particle is emitted the mass number is reduced by four (4)
and the atomic number (proton number) is reduced by two (2). Nucleus with
heavy mass can only emit alpha particles.
BETA DECAY:
When a beta particle emits from the nucleus, a neutron breaks down into a
proton and an electron; the proton remains inside the nucleus and the electron
comes out as a beta particle.

Neutron
+
3
1𝐻 0
+ −1𝛽
+
Proton +
0
Nucleus of a ‘Tritium’
3
2𝐻𝑒 0𝑣ҧ
(isotope of hydrogen) 𝟎
𝟎ഥ𝒗 Antineutrino

[In Beta decay a particle called antineutrino is also produced. And some times
a positive beta particle (positron) can be produced. This will not be discussed
here]
 𝟏𝟒 𝟎 𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝑪 − −𝟏𝜷 𝟕𝑵 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 Or
𝟏𝟒
𝟔𝑪  −𝟏𝟎𝜷 + 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

General Equation:
𝒎
𝒂𝑿 − −𝟏𝟎𝛃  𝒂+𝟏
𝒎
𝒀 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 Or
𝒎
𝒂𝑿  −𝟏𝟎𝛃 + 𝒂+𝟏
𝒎
𝒀 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
[Antineutrino is not included in the general equation as it is beyond “O” level]

Thus when a beta particle is emitted from the nucleus, the mass number
remains same but the atomic number increases by one (as one neutron,
converts into proton). [The neutrino will not be included in the equation as it is
not included in the syllabus].
Gamma Emission:
With some isotopes, the emission of an alpha or beta particle from a nucleus
leaves the protons and neutrons with extra energy and they emit a gamma
radiation to lose the excess energy and become stable.
Gamma emission by itself causes no change in mass number or atomic number.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY:
Radioactive decay is a spontaneous process and completely random in nature.
The decay of a particular nucleus cannot be predicted and this process is not
affected by pressure, temperature or chemical reaction, but some radioactive
elements are more stable than others.
 Half-life:
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for the activity of any
given sample to fall to half its original value. Becquerel

The number of particles, that break in each second, depend on the number of
particles present unbroken, thus with a fresh sample of radioactive isotope the
number of unbroken particles are more in the sample thus the count rate
(particles disintegrate per minute) is more. As time passes this rate gradually
falls as unbroken particles become fewer.

𝑵
Count/Bq

𝑵
𝟐

𝑵
𝟒
𝑵
𝑵 𝟖
𝟏𝟔
Half life Half life Half life Time/sec
Finding half-life by plotting graph:
Step-1: calculate the background count rate with a G-M tube and counter.
Step-2: Calculate the count rate from the sample, at a regular interval.
Step-3: Correct the count rate of the sample.
Corrected count rate = Count rate from the source- background count rate.
Step-4: Plot the corrected count rate and time interval in a graph paper.

Step-5: Divide the first count rate by 2 and find the corresponding time interval
from the graph. That is the half-life.

EQUATIONS:

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 ×𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐

i. 𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝑳𝒊𝒇𝒆 = 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒍𝒐𝒈( )
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
ii. 𝒏= (𝒏 = 𝑵𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔)
𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝑳𝒊𝒇𝒆
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆
iii. 𝒏 = (𝒏 = 𝑵𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔)
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐
𝟏
iv. 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 =
𝟐𝒏
𝟏
v. 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 = (𝟏 − )
𝟐𝒏

vi. 𝑨𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 = 𝒏. 𝑯𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY corresponding
There are many uses of radioisotopes. Some of the practical uses are explained
below.
Tracers
The radiation from a radioisotope can be traced out by using detectors so they
are used as a tracer.
• To check the function of body organs: Most of the time the gamma emitter is
used, as it is less ionizing and high penetrating. For an example to check the
thyroid gland function the patient drinks a liquid containing iodine-123, which
is a gamma emitter and over the next 24 hours a detector measures the tracers
to find out how quickly it becomes concentrated in the thyroid gland which is a
measure of the function of the gland.
The kidney on the right side is not working properly.
• By putting radioisotope in the soil, plant’s activity can be traced. Which part
of a plant analyzes what type of chemical, can be identified by radioactive
tracers.
• Detecting leaks or cracks in the underground pipelines can be done by adding
radioactive tracer in the fluid in the pipe. While passing, the radioactive tracer
comes out from the crack and produces a large count, when the radiation is
checked from the surface, thus the crack is identified.
Geiger counter

A B C

Crack

At the position B the Geiger counter will show a large reading as radioisotope
came out from the crack and gives off radiation.

All the tracers mentioned here should emit gamma radiation with a short half-
life so that there remains no detectable radiation to cause damages for a longer
period.

Checking for Cracks:

Gamma radiation can pass through metal like X-ray, and can be used to take
photograph, inside the metals. Checking cracks are important to make moving
parts for better lasting and highest performance.
Thickness monitoring:
In some production process (especially in paper and plastic sheets) a uniform
thickness of material has to be maintained. This can be done by radioactive
isotopes.

Rollers
Tire cord
Beta source

Detector

Control unit

In this process beta emitter is used because it is moderate penetrating it shows

a noticeable change in the count rate when thickness is changed. The detector
is connected to the control unit, which adjusts the pressure instantly when the
count rate is changed and keeps the thickness constant. Alpha or gamma
radiations are not suitable because alpha will not pass and gamma will not show
any change in the count rate when the thickness is changes.

Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 is a radioactive element which emits beta particle. In living animals,
there is carbon-14 present along with carbon-12, and the ratio of c-14 to c-12
remains constant as long as an animal is alive. After the death of that animal,
the amount of c-14 decreases in its body. Thus by calculating the ratio of c-14
to c-12 of a fossil, the approximate time of that fossil can be estimated, and
this is called carbon dating.
Sterilizations
Ionizing radiation can kill germs and microorganism. This process is called sterilization
by ‘irradiation’. It is safe than sterilization by chemicals or heating. The chemicals
remains with the food and harm us and heating spoils the food value. But irradiation
keeps the food value and nutrients. Irradiation is also less expensive, a source with a
long half-life can be used for a long time.

More uses of radioactivity:

NOTES:
• When the nucleus of unstable radioactive isotopes break down, only then
Alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation emit.
• When a radiation is emitted from the nucleus, the nucleus changes into a
new element. This is called nuclear reaction.
• All radiation causes ionization.
• Radiation Protective suit must be worn by the users of the radioactivity.
And the radioactive source must be kept into a special container. (For
safety)
NUCLEAR Fission and Fusion:
Nuclear Fission: the process in which a large nucleus breaks down into two
nearly equal daughter nuclei and a large amount of energy released is called
Nuclear Fission. Nuclear fission is done by hitting the parent nucleus with a
slow moving neutron.

Nuclear Chain Reaction: the reaction which is once started and continues is
called chain reaction. To harness the energy from a nuclear reaction, the
reaction must be a chain reaction, so that a continuous source of energy can be
there. In a nuclear chain reaction there must be several free neutrons after
every reaction so that these free neutrons can continue the fission reaction, as
the fission takes place by the free neutrons.
 𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟒𝟐
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 𝟗𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟐𝒏

Another equation:

𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟐𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟒𝟏

𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 𝟗𝟐
𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑𝒏
Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reactor:
The nuclear reactors are mainly used to produce electricity. In these reactors
uranium-235 is used as fuel. If the nucleus of this isotope u-235 is hit with a
comparatively slow neutron which is often called thermal neutron, the uranium-
235 absorbs the neutron and becomes u-236 and breaks quickly and large
amount of radiation is emitted which is used to produce steam to rotate turbine
and generator and electricity is produced.
Fuel rod: These are uranium oxide (mainly Uranium-235).When thermal
neutrons hit these fuel rods, the fission reaction starts and continues as a chain
reaction.
Control Rods: Control rods can be made by cadmium oxide or boron (Oxides).
The main purpose of the control rods is to absorb the excess neutrons. These
control rods are put in the core in different amount to operate the fission
reaction, and control the reaction rate. To shut down the reactor the control
rods are completely put inside the core so that the neutrons are absorbed and
the reaction can be stopped.
Moderator: The main purpose of the moderator is to slowdown the fast moving
neutrons to thermal neutrons so the fission is possible. Graphite or heavy water
is used as moderator. Colliding or passing through the moderator the neutrons
slow down to thermal neutrons.
Nuclear hazard and safety:
Nuclear power has the greatest potential hazard to health and safety, as a major
accident can destroy an entire landscape.
A large amount of area can become radioactive in a nuclear accident. To avoid
nuclear hazard or radioactive danger, the following steps must be remembered:
i) Keep the radioactive source as far as possible from the body.
ii) Never get exposed to any kind of radiation.
iii) Radioactive source must be kept in special container.
iv) The radioactive source must be handled with tong, tweezers or robotic
hands.

Nuclear Hazards:
Like every industry, there is a chance of nuclear accident in nuclear reactors,
which are more dangerous than industrial accident.
Nuclear accidents have a long term effect on the surrounding. After a nuclear
accident the radioactive materials spread over a large area as dust and gas.
Soon these dust and gas mix with air, water and natural sources which are
difficult to clean.
These radioactive materials mix with life cycle, echo system and in food chain
and gets inside our body, and as they have a long half-life, they have a long
term effect on us. Which can develop cancer and cell mutation.
The waste and the bi-products, produced in a nuclear reactor are also
radioactive and emit harmful radiation. Some of the radio isotopes in these
waste have a long half-life. So these waste must be handled with extreme care
so that these waste cannot mix up with echo system.
Nuclear Fusion:
The nuclear process in which two light nuclei combine or Fuse together in proper
condition and form a single nucleus is called ‘Fusion reaction’.
Properties:
i) It is a nuclear reaction.
ii) It is opposite the fission process.
iii) New element forms in this reaction
iv) The mass of the new nucleus will be less than the mass of the
constituent nucleons, as some mass converts into energy.
v) Some of this energy is used as ‘Binding energy’ of the new nucleus and
some releases as radiation.
vi) Nuclear fusion is the source of the energy in the stars and our Sun.

Example of a fusion:
One deuterium atom collides with a tritium atom in suitable condition. They
undergo fusion and forms a nucleus of a helium, a neutron and emits large
amount of energy.

3
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 = 42𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
The mass of the product (helium and neutron) is less than two hydrogen
isotopes tritium and deuterium. The lost mass converts into energy, some of
that energy emits as radiation. But in the equation both sides is considered
have same mass. The fusion process is the energy source of the Sun and other
stars. Fusion is possible in the lighter nuclei, like hydrogen, helium etc.
The advantages of using Fusion reactor:
Fusion reaction does not produces radioactive waste. And the byproducts of
fusion is mainly helium, which is lighter than air, thus it would float in the upper
atmosphere which would give us a clean atmosphere down here. And the fuel
of fusion is the isotopes of hydrogen which is available in water.
The problem is the hydrogen nuclei are positively charged, they repel each
other, and thus they do not hit each other to combine (fuse). To make them
collide, they must have high kinetic energy, which can be supplied to them by
heat, and for that purpose the temperature must be very high (100 million oC).
There must be very high pressure and high density in hydrogen isotopes so the
chance of collision increases. Which is very difficult to maintain. The hydrogen
isotopes are contained in a strong magnetic field which is called “magnetic
bottle” as fusion can go on continuously.