NCM 108 – HEALTH CARE ETHICS health professionals, researchers, and

policymakers that may impact the health and

ETHICAL THEORIES 1
well-being of patients, families, and
“NURSING IS THE GENTLE ART OF communities (WHO, 2022).
CARING”
Importance of Health Ethics
 It is essential for the health care
professionals and especially those aspiring
to be in healthcare management to
understand not only health care regulation
and compliance, but medical ethics as well.
 Healthcare professionals should want to
provide the best care they can for their
patients — which involves care driven by a
solid moral compass.
ETHICAL THEORIES

Nursing  Ethical Theories provides explanation for

the rationality of
 Universal human actions.
 Working for a noble cause  Ethics is proposed to be objective, otherwise
 Dealing with human life it fails to set
 Respect for human rights including cultural a standard that will guide a human character.
rights  To be able to navigate the complexity of
 Treating clients with dignity patient care,
 Care to humanity nurses should not only be armed with
 Right to life and choice scientific knowledge but also knowledge of
Ethics ethical theories to
guide the ethicality of nursing actions.
 derived from the Greek word ethos, which
means ‘custom.’ or ‘character’ ETHICAL THEORIES
 branch of knowledge that deals with moral 1. Morality
principles that govern a person’s behavior or  The set of standards that enable people
the conducting of an activity. to live cooperatively in groups. It’s what
 study of how humans beings treat each other societies determine to be “right” and
and natural environment; it is the systematic “acceptable.”
examination of the attitudes and behaviors  Immoral: Describes someone who
of people. purposely commits an offensive act, even
Health ethics though they know the difference between
what is right and wrong
 is the branch of ethics that deals with ethical  Nonmoral: Describes situations in which
issues in health, health care, medicine, and morality is not a concern
science.  Amoral: Describes someone who
 promotes consideration of values in the acknowledges the difference between right
prioritization and justification of actions by
 and wrong, but who is not concerned with consequences should be greatest good for
morality greatest
number
2. Utilitarianism o DEONTOLOGY - actions that align with
 A specific type of consequentialism that rules are ethical, we look on the actions
focuses on the greatest good for the itself to be right or wrong
greatest number. o TELEOLOGY - actions are based on the
 According to consequentialism, the right outcome/quality of outcomes to be right or
course of action is determined by wrong
examining the consequences or outcome
of an action and selecting the one that OTHER ETHICAL THEORIES
produces the greatest good. A. SUBJECT RELATIVISM
 Thus, no action is itself right or wrong –  No universal norms of right or wrong
it is the action’s consequences that  One can be wrong or right based on
determine whether it is right or wrong relative views

3. Deontology B. CULTURAL RELATIVISM

 A category of normative ethical theory  Right and wrong depend on a society’s
that encompasses any theory which is moral guidelines.
primarily concerned with adherence to  An action can be right in a certain
certain rules or duties. society at one time and wrong in another
 Actions that align with these rules are society or at another time.
ethical, while actions that don’t aren’t.
 Do the right thing, because it’s the C. Divine Command Theory
right thing to do – it is what your duty  Good actions: aligned with God’s will.
demands.  Bad actions: contrary to God’s will.
 God reveals to man His will which
ETHICAL THEORIES guides man to act.

4. Teleology VIRTUE ETHICS 2

 From Greek telos, “end”; logos, VIRTUE ETHICS IN NURSING
“science”
 Theory of morality that derives duty or  Virtue ethics is an approach that focuses on
moral obligation from what is good or character with the assumption that a person
desirable as an end to be achieved. of good character will tend to behave in
 Rightness of an act is determined by its ways that are consistent with their
end. character.
 Consequences drive the moral decision.  A virtue ethics for nursing is therefore
concerned with the
o MORALITY - actions are based on character of individual nurses and seeks
ways to enable nurses to develop character
standards in
traits appropriate for actions that enhance
society to be right and accepted
wellbeing.
o UTILITARIANISM - no actions is right or
 “Character matters.”
wrong,
Florence Nightingale, the founder
 of the modern era of the nursing their relevance remains obvious. The
profession, recognized the essence of caring as a nurse is
importance of personal character that you recognize the value and worth of
and virtue to those who would those you care for and that the patient and
aspire to become a nurse. his or her
experience matters to you.
What VIRTUES are needed?
 In order for the nurse to bring holistic care
1. Truthfulness/Honesty that includes the “art” of nursing into his/her
 The lack of honesty and truthfulness is at the practice,
root of the ongoing problem of cheating, sympathy and compassion for others must
plagiarism and other shortcuts all too many be evident.
students are willing to pursue to get a
passing grade. 5. Humility
 If a nurse is willing to lie and compromise  Humility is being humble, or in nursing is
the truth for his/her benefit, this will follow reflected as an attitude that finds joy and
them in practice when an error is made and satisfaction in
needs to be disclosed. If a student is willing serving others. The best nurses have a strong
to be deceitful in academics, desire to serve their patients and putting
they will also be deceitful in practice. their needs ahead of their own.
 A nurse with a humble, servant motivation;
2. Integrity has a love and empathy for others, is secure
 To be a person of Integrity involves a and does not feel that it is beneath them to
personal choice to hold oneself to consistent serve others, but
high moral and ethical standards. It is living embraces and enjoys meeting the needs of
out practically the ethical principles you the patient and their family.
value and believe internally.
 Integrity is also closely related to honesty. 6. Prudence
o For example, a lack of disclosure and  This is described as acting with
honesty with any type of error or cautiousness, with foresight, and with
mistake does not just impact you, it discretion.
also affects the patient and can result  A nurse is expected to be prudent in all that
in a possible adverse outcome. she does, especially in the performance of
her duty.
3. Fidelity  Exercising careful judgment and making
 Refers to the obligation of a person to be wise decision in various aspects of care.
faithful to agreements and commitments that
he has made to 7. Courage
himself and to others.  The ability to disregard fear in acting out
 It is the main principle that supports the one’s convictions and beliefs.
concept of accountability of nurses and  Nurses have to muster up strength and
professionals. persevere to be able to perform their duties
and responsibilities.
4. Sympathy/Compassion
 Caring and compassion remain the core 8. Thankfulness
virtue ethics of the nursing profession and
  Student entitlement that sees education as a
“right” and being owed a passing grade
Common Modes of Value Transmission
because they paid for it is the antithesis of
gratitude and thankfulness.  Modeling
 The mindset of students who work hard o children learn values by observing
knowing that they are blessed just to have others
the opportunity to  Moralizing
have an education and go to school removes o children taught a complete value
any sense of entitlement thinking. system that allows little opportunity
CORE VALUES 3 to weigh different values
 Laissez-faire
Values o children left to explore values on
 describe the personal qualities we their own, little or no guidance,
choose to embody to guide our actions; the likely to lead to confusion
sort of person we want to be; the manner in  Rewarding and punishing
which we treat ourselves and others, and our o children rewarded for values held by
interaction with the world around us. parents and punished for
 important because they influence decisions demonstrating unacceptable values
and actions, including nurses’ ethical  Responsible choice
decision making. o encourages children to explore
competing values and to weigh their
An individual is not born with values, they are consequences, support and guidance
formed during a lifetime involving influences from are offered
the environment, family, & culture
Core Values of A Professional Nurse
 Personal Values
o are learned values from society and  Altruism
perceived and internalized by an o is a concern for the welfare and well
individual as his own. being of others.
 Professional Values o In professional practice, altruism is
o are acquired during socialization into reflected by the nurse’s concern for
nursing from Code of Ethics, nursing the welfare of patients, other nurses,
experiences, teachers and peers. and other health care providers.
 Cultural values  Autonomy
o are values accepted by religions or o is the right to self determination.
societies and reflect what is Professional practice reflects
important in each context. autonomy when the nurse respects
patients’ rights to make decisions
about their health.
 Human dignity
o is respect for the inherent worth and
the uniqueness of individuals and
populations.
o In professional practice, human
dignity is reflected when nurse
 values and respects all patients and 1. AUTONOMY
colleagues.  The freedom to make decisions about
 Integrity oneself
o is acting in accordance with an  The right to self-determination
appropriate code of ethics and  Healthcare providers need to respect
accepted standards of practice. patient’s rights to make choices about
o It is reflected in professional practice healthcare, even if the healthcare providers
when the nurse is honest and do not agree with the patient’s decision.
provides care based on an ethical PATIENT’S BILL OF RIGHTS
framework that is accepted within
the profession. 1. Right to Appropriate Medical Care and
 Social justice Humane Treatment
o is upholding moral, legal and  Every person has a right to
humanistic principles. health and medical care
o This value is reflected in corresponding to his state of
professional practice when the nurse health, without any
works to ensure equal treatment discrimination and within the
under the law and equal access to limits of the resources,
quality healthcare. manpower and competence
available for health and
 Altruism: concern for welfare and well- medical care at the relevant
being of others time.
 Autonomy: right to self-determination 2. Right to Informed Consent
 Human dignity: respect for inherent worth  The patient has a right to a
and uniqueness of individuals and clear, truthful and substantial
populations explanation, in a manner and
 Integrity: acting according to code of ethics language understandable to
and standards of practice the patient, of all proposed
 Social justice: upholding moral, legal, and procedures, whether
humanistic rights diagnostic, preventive,
curative, rehabilitative or
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES 4 therapeutic, wherein the
person who will perform the
said procedure shall provide
his name and credentials to
the patient, possibilities of
any risk of mortality or
serious side effects, problems
related to recuperation, and
probability of success and
reasonable risks involved.
INFORMED CONSENT
 A patient’s signed consent
form is necessary for
 admission to a health care 3. Right to Privacy and Confidentiality
agency, invasive procedure  The privacy of the patients
such as intravenous central must be assured at all stages
line insertion, surgery, some of his treatment. The patient
treatment programs such as has the right to be free from
chemotherapy, and unwarranted public exposure,
participation in research except in the following cases:
studies (Guido, 2014).
a) when his mental or physical condition is in
controversy and the appropriate court, in its
discretion, orders him to submit to a
physical or mental examination by a
Principle or Requirements of Informed Consent:
physician;
1. Decision-making capacity; b) when the public health and safety are at
2. Documentation of consent stake; and
3. Disclosure of information c) when the patient waives this right in writing.
4. Comprehension of nformation.
1. That the individual’s decision is voluntary;
2. That this decision is made with an appropriate
understanding of the circumstances; and
3. That the patient’s choice is deliberate insofar as
the patient has carefully considered all of the
benefits, burdens, risks, and reasonable alternatives

4. Right to Information
 In the course of his/her
treatment and hospital care,
the patient or his/her legal
guardian has a right to be
informed of the result of the
evaluation of the nature and
extent of his/her disease, any
other additional or further
contemplated medical
treatment on surgical
procedure or procedures.
5. The Right to Choose Health Care
Provider and Facility
 The patient is free to choose
the health care provider to
 serve him as well as the situation as determined by the
facility except when he is attending physician or the
under the care of a service medical director of the
facility or when public health facility.
and safety so demands or 8. Right to Medical Records
when the patient expressly  The patient is entitled to a
waives this right in writing summary of his medical
6. Right to Self-Determination history and condition.
 The patient has the right to  He has the right to view the
avail himself/herself of any contents of his medical
recommended diagnostic and records, except psychiatric
treatment procedures. Any notes and other incriminatory
person of legal age and of information obtained about
sound mind may make an third parties, with the
advance written directive for attending physician
physicians to administer explaining the contents
terminal care when he/she thereof.
suffers from the terminal
phase of a terminal illness:
 Provided that 9. Right to Leave
a) he is informed of the  The patient has the right to leave
medical consequences of hospital or any other health care
his choice; institution regardless of his physical
b) he releases those involved condition
in his care from any  Provided That:
obligation a) he/she is informed of the medical
c) relative to the consequences of his/her decision
consequences of his b) he/she releases those involved in
decision; his/her care from any obligation
d) his decision will not relative to the consequences of
prejudice public health his decision;
and safety c) his/her decision will not
7. Right to Religious Belief prejudice public health and
 The patient has the right to safety.
refuse medical treatment or 10. Right to Refuse Participation In Medical
procedures which may be Research
contrary to his religious  The patient has the right to be
beliefs, subject to the advised if the health care provider
limitations described in the plans to involve him in medical
preceding subsection: research, including but not limited to
Provided, That such a right human experimentation which may
shall not be imposed by be performed only with the written
parents upon their children informed consent of the patient.
who have not reached the 11. Right to Correspondence and to Receive
legal age in a life-threatening Visitors
  The patient has the right to information to be
communicate with relatives and shared
other persons and to receive visitors 3. VERACITY
subject to reasonable limits  This principle implies
prescribed by the rules and “truthfulness”
regulations of the health care  Nurses need to be truthful to
institution. their clients
12. Right to Express Grievances  Veracity is an important
 The patient has the right to express component of building
complaints and grievances about the trusting relationships
care and services received without 4. FIDELITY
fear of discrimination or reprisal and  Loyalty
to know about the disposition of such  The promise to fulfill all
complaints. commitments
 The basis of accountability
 Includes the professionals
13. Right to be Informed of His Rights and faithfulness or loyalty to
Obligations as a Patient agreements & responsibilities
 Every person has the right to be accepted as part of the
informed of his rights and practice of the profession
obligations as a patient. 5. JUSTICE
 Every individual must be
PATIENT’S BILL OF RIGHTS
treated equally
 Privacy  This requires nurses to be
 Autonomy nonjudgmental
 Treatment refusal
 Information
 Education 6. BENEFICENCE
 Not to be restrained  This principle means “doing
 To be treated with confidentiality good” for others
 Services  Nurses need to assist clients
in meeting all their needs
2. CONFIDENTIALITY o Biological
 Anything stated to nurses or o Psychological
healthcare providers by o Social
patients must remain 7. NON-MALEFICENCE
confidential  Requires that no harm be
 The only times this principle caused to an individual,
may be violated are: either unintentionally or
o If patients may intentionally.
indicate harm to  This principle requires nurses
themselves or others to protect individuals who are
o If the patient gives unable to protect themselves
permission for the
OTHER PRINCIPLES 5
  Principle of Double Effect o The bad result may not be
 Principle of Legitimate Cooperation directly intended.
 Principle of Common Good and 3. Foreseen side effect
Subsidiarity o The good result may not be a
direct causal result of a bad
Principle of Double Effect
result.
 This principle aims to provide specific 4. Unforeseen side effect
guideline for determining when it is morally o The good result must be
permissible to perform an action in pursuit “proportionate to” the bad
of a good end in full knowledge that the result.
action will also bring about bad results.
 The theory of double effect has use in
medical ethics when dealing with abortion,
euthanasia, and other decisions where there
 An action that is good in itself that has two is a conflict between a good and an evil.
effects – an intended and otherwise not  For example, under this view, abortion is
reasonably attainable good effect, and an an evil but saving the life of a mother is a
unintended yet foreseen evil effect. good. Under this view, euthanasia is an evil,
 The principle has its historical roots in the but relieving pain using morphine is a good.
medieval natural law tradition, especially in If the person dies and the death was not
the thought of Thomas Aquinas (1225- intended, then is it acceptable? Major issues
1274), and has been refined both in its arise in the application of the theory
general formulation and in its application by concerning how to determine a person’s
generations of Catholic moral theologians. intent.
 According to the principle of double effect,
sometimes it is permissible to cause a harm Principle of Legitimate Cooperation
as a side effect (or “double effect”) of COOPERATION
bringing about a good result even though it
would not be permissible to cause such a  in the ethical sense is defined as the
harm as a means to bringing about the same participation of one agent in the activity
good end. of another agent to produce a particular
 The first principle that proposes to effect or share in a joint activity.
distinguish between a good and an evil.  becomes ethically problematic when the
action of the primary agent is morally
wrong.
Classical formulations of the principle of double
effect require that four conditions be met if the Criteria to judge how legitimate your cooperation
action in question is to be morally permissible: with the evil is:

1. Direct 1. The moral object of your action is

o The action contemplated be good and you are operating out of
good intentions.
in itself must be either
2. The evil is only tolerated as a side
morally good or at least
effect of your action.
indifferent.
3. Your cooperation is only material
2. Indirect
cooperation, not formal.
 4. Your cooperation is remote rather  Implicit formal cooperation occurs when
than proximate, so it causes minimal even though the cooperator denies intending
evil effects. the object of the principal agent, the
5. Your action does not cause scandal. cooperator participates in the action directly
and in such a way that it could not be done
 Moral Object without this participation
o the objective goal of the
2. Material Cooperation
action.
 Intention  occurs when the evil and means are
o the reason why you choose indirectly chosen by a person who has
the act. chosen a good end and good means.
 Legitimate
o refers to moral  Mediate Material
acceptability, not the legal o when the cooperator’s involvement
meaning of conforming to a is only contingent or accidental to
set of standards and the wrongdoing
requirements to be
acceptable.
 Cooperation  Immediate Material
o means working together o when the cooperator’s involvement
despite disagreement about is necessary for the evil to continue
the ends or means of the act.
When you are performing an action that is
Wrongdoer and Cooperator intertwined with evil, you can use the following
criteria to judge how legitimate your cooperation
 Wrongdoer
with the evil is:
o is the party who initiated the
wrongdoing, directly  The moral object of your action is good, and
intending the specific evil. you are operating out of good intentions.
 Cooperator  The evil is only tolerated as a side effect of
o is involved with the your action
wrongdoing by means of  Your cooperation is only material
some action that is distinct cooperation, not formal
from the evil act initiated by  Your cooperation is remote rather than
the wrongdoer. proximate, so it causes minimal evil effects
o intends a specific good and  Your action does not cause scandal
only tolerates the evil as a Principle of Common Good and Subsidiarity
necessary side effect.
 The term the "common good" has been
Types of Cooperation: used in various contexts to identify actions
1. Formal Cooperation or outcomes that have some definable
benefit that extends beyond individual gain.
 occurs when a person or organization freely
participates in the actions of a principal o The common good has been
agent. addressed in professional literature
pertaining to ethics, political action,
 the environment, nursing, and health  Every task of society should be assigned to
care. the smallest possible group that can perform
 Although nursing literature does not address it. Only if the smaller group is unable to
the common good from a theological resolve the problem itself should a group at
perspective, it clearly addresses related a higher level assume responsibility.
concepts such as concern for the whole
person in the community and outcomes
associated with the common good, such as PRINCIPLES USED IN BIOETHICS 6
distributive justice.
1. Principle of Stewardship
o Consistent with the Catholic  Stewardship
perspective of the common good, o The job of supervising or taking
nursing also addresses the need to care of something, such as an
balance the preservation of organization or property.
individual dignity and respect against  God has the absolute domain over
societal integrity. creation.
 Man is made in God’s image and likeness,
we have given the limited dominion over
creation and WE are responsible for it’s
care.
 “he painga má te katoa”
o respecting the rights and
responsibilities of all people.
 Common Good
o the sum total social conditions 2 great gifts that a wise and loving God has given
which allows people, either as to us;
groups or as individuals, to reach
1. the earth, with all the natural resource
their fulfilment more fully and more
easily. It is about the progress of 2. human nature, with its biological,
persons. psychological, social and spiritual capacities.
 Human creativity should be used to cultivate
 A society that wishes and intends to remain
nature, recognizing our limitation and the
at the service of the human being at every
risk of destroying these gifts.
level is a society that has the common good
 Gifts of human life and environment MUST
– the good of all people and of the whole
be used with profound respect.
person as its primary goal.

 Subsidiarity requires those in positions of

STEWARDSHIP in Healthcare Practice
authority to recognize that individuals
have a right to participate in decisions o refers to the expression of one’s
that directly affect them, in accord with responsibility to take care,
their dignity and with their responsibility to nurture, and cultivate what has
the common good. been entrusted to him.
 o In healthcare practice, about hospital waste segregation and recycling.
STEWARDSHIP refers to the Nurses can lead a way for communities to have a
execution of responsibility of the more sustainable way of living.
health care practitioners to look
D. Biomedical
after, provide necessary health care
services, and promote the health and 1. A nurse should be familiar and well versed with
life of those entrusted to their care. new equipment and tools that are being used in the
hospital and other clinical setting.

STEWARDSHIP in NURSING • According to the theory of Locsin, entitled

Technological competency as caring in nursing, a
o involves valuing and respecting patients’
nurse can be a steward of patients if they know how
priorities and self-determination. to use technology to their advantage.
o Nurses become stewards or teachers to
patients who may not have the expertise or 2. Principle of Totality and Its Integrity
experience in the disease process, but who The principle of totality states that all decisions in
understand the consequences of their illness. medical ethics must prioritize the good of the
Roles of Nurses as Stewards entire person, including physical, psychological and
spiritual factors.
A. Personal
SUPPORTING PATIENT RIGHTS AND
1. The nurse steward ought to structure CHOICES
educational opportunities that encourage nurses to
shift their epistemology of practice to integrating a 1. Respect the dignity and worth of individual
virtue-based practical reasoning. patients.
2. Preserves and protects patient autonomy and
human rights.
B. Social
3. Be knowledgeable about the moral and legal
1. Nurses advocate for the health promotion to rights of their patients and to protect and support
educate patients and public on the prevention of those rights.
illness and injury, provide care and assist in cure,
participate in rehabilitation and provide support. 4. Individual rights to self‐ determination in health
care should be overridden temporarily to preserve
2. Nurses help families become healthy by helping the life of the community.
them understand the range of emotional, physical,
mental and cultural experiences they encounter Self‐ Determination VS. PUBLIC SAFETY
during health and illness.  For example, during a bioterrorism attack,
3. Nurses help people and their families to cope victims infected with transmissible
with their illness and deal with it and if necessary organisms (eg: monkeypox, covid 19)
live with it, so that their normal life can continue. require infection control measures to prevent
transmission to others.
C. Ecological  These infection control measures may
1. Nurses can help with waste management. Health require isolation, resulting in restricting a
care sectors generates tons of waste from the patient's right to freedom of movement to
hospitals and since nurses are the frontlines of care, protect others.
they can be helpful in coming up with policies
5. Supporting patient's participation in decision Ethico-moral Responsibility of Nurses in
making, confirming informed consent, and Surgery
implementing advance directive policies.
 Ethical dilemma (ethical paradox or
6. Provide patients with honest and accurate moral dilemma)
answers to their questions. o is a problem in the decision-
making process between two
7. Perioperative nurses should explain the
possible options, neither of which is
procedures and OR environment before initiating
absolutely acceptable from an ethical
actions.
perspective
8. Respect patients' wishes in regard to advance o happens when a patient is anxious
directives and end‐ of‐life choices. because he or she does not
understand fully what is going to
9. Patients have the right to self‐ determination (ie,
happen in surgery and the nurse is
the ability to decide for oneself what course of
being pressured for a fast turnover
action will be taken in various circumstances).
time
10. Nurses can empower patients by providing  Nurses must realize that they are not being
opportunities for them to make autonomous asked to provide informed consent for the
decisions about their health care. patient.
 The nurse is merely acting as a witness to
11. When dealing with informed consent, the nurse's
the identity of the patient and to the patient's
role is to validate that the patient has been given the
signature on the consent form.
information and understands as much as possible
 Assess the patient's level of understanding
about the surgical intervention.
and see if he or she wishes to further
12. The principle of autonomy provides for patients discuss the proposed intervention with the
to make decisions freely, even if those decisions are physician.
against medical advice.
13. Even if the surgeon and nurse believe that
Sterilization
surgery is in the best interest of the patient, the
patient has the right to refuse the procedure at any o refers to any process that eliminates,
time, regardless of whether he or she signed the removes, kills, or deactivates all forms of
surgical consent form. life and other biological agents.
14. Nurses ethically should support patients in their Mutilation
choices, regardless of whether they agree with the
patient's decision. o Female genital mutilation (FGM) comprises
all procedures that involve partial or total
15. Nursing assessment and care also applies to removal of the external female genitalia, or
situations in which patients identify advance other injury to the female genital organs for
directive choices or decisions related to do‐not‐ nonmedical reasons.
resuscitate orders. It is the nurse's role to ensure that
surgical team members are aware of a patient's Preservation of Bodily Functional Integrity
wishes in these matters.  These principle dictates that the well-being
16. It is important that all team members and the of the whole person must be taken into
patient discuss and identify a plan of care before account in deciding about any therapeutic
beginning the surgical procedure. intervention or use of technology.
  Therapeutic procedures that are likely to o For example, a feeding tube is an
cause harm or undesirable side effects can ordinary means of preserving life
be justified only by a proportionate benefit  Extraordinary means
of the patient. o are medical procedures which no
longer correspond to the real
For example:
situation of the patient, either
 If one organ is missing from the person’s because they are by now
body = lack of anatomical integrity disproportionate to any expected
 But if one kidney is healthy, present and results or because they impose an
functioning well =functional integrity is excessive burden on the patient and
preserved. his family.
o means must be taken to preserve life,
Issues on Organ Donation
and extraordinary means can be
 Organ donation is when a person allows an morally refused.
organ of their own to be removed and
transplanted to another person, legally, 4. Principle of Personalized Sexuality
either by consent while the donor is alive or Sex
dead with the consent of the next of kin
 Donation may be for research or, more o is a social necessity for the procreation of
commonly, healthy transplantable organs children and their education in the family so
and tissues may be donated to be as to expand the human community and
transplanted into another person. guarantee its future beyond the death of
 Some organs and tissues can be donated by individual members.
living donors, such as a kidney or part of the o Teaches that God created persons as male
liver, part of the pancreas, part of the lungs and female and blessed their sexuality as a
or part of the intestines, but most donations great and good gift.
occur after the donor has died.
 Common transplantations include kidneys,
heart, liver, pancreas, intestines, lungs,
bones, bone marrow, skin, and corneas.
3. Principle of Ordinary and Extraordinary
Measures
 Ordinary measures
o are those that are based on
medication or treatment which is
directly available and can be applied
without incurring severe pain, costs
or other inconveniences
o must be taken to preserve life
o are those “means of treatment
available are objectively
proportionate to the prospects for
improvement.”