Carbohydrates
Essential idea: Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen are used to supply and store energy.
When you are building and drawing molecules it is essential to remember that it's the
bonds between the atoms where energy is stored. Organic molecules are often complex
and hence contain many bonds. The background image is a molecular model that shows a
small part of a cellulose molecule.
• Monosaccharides – sugars consisting
of ONE single sub-unit (monomer)
• Disaccharides – 2 monomers linked
together by a condensation reaction
• Polysaccharides – Made up of many
monomers linked together by
condensation reactions
[Link]
Carbohydrates
• Includes: Starches, cellulose, glycogen and
sugars
• Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
• Generalised formula: (CH20)n
• There are 3 main types:
Monosaccharides
(single sugars)
● Classified as “reducing sugars” – sweet,
white and water soluble solids
● Glucose, which exists as –glucose
and –glucose, is the most common
What are
•
carbohydrates?
Draw an α glucose molecule
Glucose C6H12O6
CH2O
H
C O
H H
H
C C
O H
O O
H H
H C C
H O
H
3D model Note: need to click on
JMOL (top right hand corner to view)
What are
•
carbohydrates?
Draw an α glucose molecule
• Now draw another α glucose next to it
(side by side)
What are
• carbohydrates?
Join your 2 glucose molecules…
• What is the name of this new disaccharide?
Mono to disaccharide
H2O
2 glucose =
maltose
This is called a 1-4 glycosidic bond
Di to monosaccharide
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and
polysaccharide polymers.
water is removed glycosidic water is a
bond product
Monosaccharide #1 Glucose has the formula C6H12O6
It forms a hexagonal ring (hexose)
[Link]
Terminology
● An isomer
– Is a molecule with the same chemical
formula, but with a different structural
arrangement
Structural isomers
Glucose actually exists as two ring forms…….
CH2OH CH2OH
H H H
O Readily O O
H H
OH H OH H H
OH inter
O OH H
convertible
H OH H H OH
Alpha ( ) glucose Beta ( ) glucose
Even though there is only a small difference in
structure, the effects of this difference are
enormous. Pictures from: [Link]
Fructose C6H12O6
● Forms a pentagon
ring in the middle,
but has 6 carbons
hence it is a
HEXOSE sugar
3D Model
Galactose
Spot the difference
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Galactose Galactose is also a
Spot the difference hexose sugar
It has the same
formula C6H12O6
but is less sweet
Most commonly
found in milk,
but also found
in cereals
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Disaccharides
(double sugars)
● May be reducing or non-reducing
sugars
● 2 monosaccharides are joined by a
condensation reaction, which links the
two molecules by a glycosidic bond
(C-O-C)
Terminology
● Monomer:
– A single sub-unit of a larger molecule
● Polymer:
– Many monomers joined together
● Macromolecule:
– Larger molecules made from smaller
organic molecules
Disaccharide #1
Maltose (C12H22O11) is a
dimer of glucose and a 1,4 [Link]
glycosidic bond [Link]
Disaccharide #2 Lactose (C12H22O11) is
(Literally “two sugars”) most commonly found in milk
The two subunits that
make up lactose are
glucose and
galactose and 1,4
glycosidic bond
[Link]
[Link]
Disaccharide #3
Sucrose (C12H22O11)
is also known as table sugar
The two monosaccharides that
make it up are
glucose and fructose
and a 1,4 glycosidic
bond [Link]
[Link]
Polysaccharid
es
Know any?
Polysaccharid
es
Know any?
Polysaccharides
● Many monomer units linked together to form
polymers.
● Important storage and structural compounds.
● As storage compounds they must be
compact, insoluble (not interfere with the
osmotic properties of cell) and rapidly
converted for use.
● The 3 main types of polysaccharides
are:
1. Starch
● Storage compound in plants made from amylose
and amylopectin
● Amylose
– Single chain / unbranched (only 1-4 bonds) chains of -
glucose
– Forms a compact, spiral shaped molecule
Pictures from: [Link]
Amylose helix – 6
glucose units in
each coil
Glycosidic
bonds
● Amylopectin
– Branched (both 1-4 and 1-6 bonds) chains of -glucose
– Forms a tightly packed brush like molecule
– Due to having more branches, glucose can be released
more quickly than from amylose
Pictures from: [Link]
1-6 links form a branch
structure
1-4 links form a helical
structure
2. Glycogen
● Storage carbohydrate in mammals.
● Made from -glucose
● Structurally similar to amylopectin but
more branched (more 1-6 bonds), so
glucose can be released even more
quickly.
Comparison
3. Cellulose
● Made up of long, straight chains of -glucose
molecules
Pictures from: [Link]
3. Cellulose
● These chains lie along side each other
bound by hydrogen bonds.
● This forms strong microfibrils, which
have a great tensile strength.
● These play a key role in the structure of
plant cell walls.
3. Cellulose
Cellulose
• Structural polysaccharide that gives strength and rigidity to plant cell
walls
• Cellulose is made up of long chains of β glucose molecules joined
together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
• These long chains lie side by side and are held together by hydrogen
bonds along their whole length
• This forms microfibrils
• Animals can not break the β 1,4 glycosidic bonds as they do not
release the necessary enzyme cellulase (β-1,4 glycosidase)
• Some grazing animals possess bacteria in their gut that produce this
enzyme
2.3.U1 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and
polysaccharide polymers.
Cellulose
Food tests
● Test for starch
– Place the food sample onto a spotting tile
and add a few drops of to it
– If positive, the iodine in potassium iodide
solution will turn from orange to blue-black
Food tests
● Test for a reducing sugar (e.g. glucose)
– Add 5ml of the food sample (as a solution)
to 1ml of Benedict’s solution
– Heat the mixture in a waterbath ABOVE
80°C
– If positive the solution will turn from light
blue to green, then yellow, then orange,
then red producing a precipitate
Food tests
● Test for a non-reducing sugar (e.g.
sucrose)
– First test for the reducing sugars
test
•This will come back negative
– Add 5ml of the food sample (as a
solution) to 2ml of hydrochloric acid
and heat for 3 mins
Reucing or non-reducing?
● Maltose:
glucose + glucose (reducing sugar)
● Sucrose:
glucose + fructose (non-reducing sugar)
● Lactose:
glucose + galactose (reducing sugar)
Food tests
Reducing sugar – the OH is part of the ring structure at carbon1 so
breaks open to form an aldehyde
Non-reducing sugar – OH is attached to the alkyl carbon (carbon not in
the ring structure) so doesn’t react in the same way to form the
aldehyde
Food test
Mystery substance X
Carry out the
reducing sugars test
Positive result Negative result
Add acid and
neutralise
Carry out the
reducing sugars test
Reducing
sugar Positive result Negative result
Non- reducing Not a sugar
sugar