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Jordan University of Science and Technology

College of Engineering

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

First semester

Experiment #2 Tensile Test

Student Name: Mohammad Kasasbeh ID: 155853

Instructor: [Link] ALDAOUD

Section #: 5

Date: 30/10/2024
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Experiment #2 - Tensile Test

Steel
Initial diameter (d0): 4.9 mm A0 = 18.86 mm²
Final diameter (df): 3.48 mm Af = 9.51 mm²
Initial length (L0): 25 mm
Final length (Lf): 31.03 mm

Upper yield strength (MPa) 691.257 *10^3

Lower yield strength (MPa) 691.257 *10^3
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 776.7772864
Engineering fracture strength (MPa) 519.4777647
True fracture strength (MPa) 1030.073607
Modulus of Toughness (Joule/m³) 6.52492921
Percent change in length (ΔL%) 42.12%
Percent change in area (ΔA%) 49.57%
Modulus of Resilience (UR) 0.010624359
Total strain 0.4212

Aluminum
Initial diameter (d0): 5.0 mm A0 = 19.64 mm²
Final diameter (df): 3.9 mm Af = 11.95 mm²
Initial length (L0): 25.1 mm
Final length (Lf): 30.795 mm

Proof strength (MPa) 7.112

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 4.77516*10^2
Engineering fracture strength (MPa) 4.415 *10^2
True fracture strength (MPa) 7.256*10^2
Percent change in length (ΔL%) .2268
Percent change in area (ΔA%) -0.3915
Modulus of Toughness (Joule/m³) 50122.5*10^3
Total strain 441.4015936

Gray Cast Iron

Initial diameter (d0): 5.0 mm A0 = 19.64 mm²
Final diameter (df): 4.94 mm Af = 19.17 mm²
Initial length (L0): 24.9 mm
Final length (Lf): 25.11 mm
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Yield strength (MPa) 224.7000

Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 2.43444072*10^2
Engineering fracture strength (MPa) 243.3
True fracture strength (MPa) 249.3
Percent change in length (ΔL%) 8.433*10^-3
Percent change in area (ΔA%) -0.0245
Modulus of Toughness (Joule/m³) 0.371582
Total strain 12.32128514

Steel calculations
1. Cross-Sectional Area Calculations

Initial Area, A0

A0=π(d0)^2/4

Final Area, A f

Af=π(df)^2/4

2. Upper and Lower Yield Strengths (MPa)

These values represent the stress at which the material begins to deform plastically.

 Upper Yield Strength: The maximum point at the onset of yielding.

 Lower Yield Strength: The minimum stress observed after yielding begins.

3. Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa)

This is the maximum stress the material can withstand and can be obtained by:

UTS=Fmax/A0

where Fmax is the maximum load applied before necking.

4. Engineering Fracture Strength (MPa)

The engineering fracture strength is calculated as:

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Engineering Fracture Strength=F (fracture)/A0

where F (fracture) is the load at the fracture point.

5. True Fracture Strength (MPa)

The true fracture strength takes into account the reduction in area:

True Fracture Strength=F(fracture)/A(f)

6. Modulus of Toughness (Joule/m³)

The modulus of toughness is the area under the entire stress-strain curve, representing the energy
absorbed per unit volume up to fracture.

7. Percent Change in Length (ΔL%)

ΔL%=((Lf−L0)/L0)×100

8. Percent Change in Area (ΔA%)

ΔA%=((A0−Af)/A0)×100

9. Modulus of Resilience (UR)

The modulus of resilience is the area under the elastic portion of the stress-strain curve :
UR=(Yield Strength)^2/E
where E is Young's Modulus, and yield strength is either the upper or lower yield strength.

10. Total Strain

Total strain is the strain at fracture:

Total Strain=(Lf−L0)/L0
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Aluminum calculations
1. Proof Strength (MPa)

Proof strength is typically defined as the stress at which a specified permanent deformation occurs. You
might need specific data from the tensile test results for this.

2. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) (MPa)

Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or
pulled before failing. This is also derived from tensile test data.

3. Engineering Fracture Strength (MPa)

This is usually equivalent to the ultimate tensile strength or can be defined by the stress at which a material
fractures.

4. True Fracture Strength (MPa)

The true fracture strength takes into account the reduction in area:

True Fracture Strength=F(fracture)/A(f)

5. Percent Change in Length (ΔL %)

ΔL%=((Lf−L0)/L0)×100

Where:
 L0 is the original length
 Lf is the final length
6. Percent Change in Area (ΔA %)

ΔA%=((Af−A0)/A0)×100

Where:

 A is the original cross-sectional area

 A is the final cross-sectional area

A=πd^2/4

7. Modulus of Toughness (Joule/m³)

•The modulus of toughness is the area under the entire stress-strain curve, representing the energy per
unit volume absorbed up to fracture.

8. Total Strain (ε)

ϵ=ΔL/L0
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Gray cast iron Calculations

1. Initial Cross-Sectional Area A0:

A0=π(d0)^2/4

2. Final Cross-Sectional Area Af :

Af=π(df)^2/4

3. Yield Strength (MPa):

 Determine the load at yield point Fy from the stress-strain curve.

 Calculate yield strength:

Yield Strength=Fy/A0

4. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS, MPa):

 Use the maximum load Fmax applied to the material:

UTS=Fmax/A0

5. Engineering Fracture Strength (MPa):

 Calculate this using the load at fracture F fracture and the initial area:

Engineering Fracture Strength=F fracture/A0

6. True Fracture Strength (MPa):

 Calculate using the final area Af to account for area reduction at fracture:

True Fracture Strength=F fracture/Af

7. Percent Change in Length (ΔL%):

ΔL%=((Lf−L0)/L0 *100

8. Percent Change in Area (ΔA%):

ΔA%=((A0−Af)/A0 ×100

9. Total Strain:

Total Strain=(Lf−L0)/L0
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10. Modulus of Toughness (Joule/m³):

 The modulus of toughness is the area under the entire stress-strain curve, representing the energy
per unit volume absorbed up to fracture.

Part 2 :Steel Specimen with Strain Gauges (Elastic Range Only)

1. Fill the table below with the data from the lab for load, axial, and lateral strain.

Specimen dimensions: a = 0.005 m, b = 0.02 m

Area (A₀) = a × b

Load (kN) Stress (Pa) Axial strain (µmm) Lateral strain

(µmm)
0 0 0 0
0.7 7,000,000 143 -47
1.4 14,000,000 249 -82
2.1 21,000,000 349 -115
2.7 27,000,000 433 -142
3.5 27,000,000 545 -179
4.2 42,000,000 644 -212

Cross-sectional area Ao=a×b=0.005 m×0.02 m=0.0001 m^2

1. Calculate Stress (σ):

Stress σ=Load/Ao

 For Load = 0.7 kN:

σ=0.7×1000/0.0001 = 7,000,000 Pa

For Load = 1.4 kN:

σ=1.4×1000/0.0001=14,000,000 Pa

2. Calculate the following values:

1. Young's Modulus (E):

 Young's modulus E is the slope of the line between stress (σ) and axial strain
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1. For Load = 0.7 kN:

ε axial=143 μm/m=143×10^−6

2. For Load = 4.2 kN:

ε axial=644 μm/m=644×10^−6

The stress values are:

 σ1=7,000,000 Pa for Load = 0.7 kN

 σ2=42,000,000 Pa for Load = 4.2 kN

calculate E:

E=(σ2−σ1)/(ε axial,2−ε axial,1)

E=(42,000,000−7,000,000)/((644×10−6)−(143×10−6)) =35,000,000/(501×10^−6)=69.86×10^9

Young's modulus E≈69.86 GPa.

2. Poisson’s Ratio (ν):

V=−ε lateral/ε axial

1. For Load = 0.7 kN:

ν1=− ((−47×10^−6)/ (143×10^−6)) =0.328

2. For Load = 4.2 kN:

ν2=−((−212×10^−6)/(644×10^−6)) = 0.329

Poisson's ratio ν≈0.33

3. Shear Modulus (G):

G=E/2(1+ν)

E=69.86 and ν=0.33

G=((69.86×10^9)2(1+0.33)) = ((69.86×10^9)/(2.66))=26.27×10^9 Pa

The shear modulus G≈26.27 GPa

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4. Bulk Modulus (K):

K = E/3(1−2ν)

ν=0.33

K =( 69.86×10^9)/(3(1−2×0.33)) =68.43×10^9

The bulk modulus K≈68.43 GPa

Q: Compare the experimental values of the E and ν with the actual values using any suitable
reference.

Ans :
 Young’s Modulus (E): approximately 69.86 GPa69.86

 Poisson’s Ratio (ν): approximately [Link]

Comparison with Reference Values:

1. Young’s Modulus (E): The typical values for the modulus of elasticity for standard steel are
between 190 GPa and 210 GPa, with the most common value being around 200 GPa

2. Poisson’s Ratio (ν): The standard Poisson's ratio for steel is usually around 0.3

Conclusion:
 The Young's Modulus we calculated is significantly lower than the standard value of 200
GPa. This could be due to various factors such as experimental errors, inaccuracies in
measurements, or imperfections in the material used.

 The Poisson’s Ratio I obtained is quite close to the reference value, which suggests that the
strain measurements in the axial and lateral directions were relatively accurate.
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(Part 1) Three materials with extensometer(instrument and specimens):

The image shows a 20 kN Universal Testing Machine

(UTM) setup, which is used to test the mechanical
properties of materials, such as tensile strength and
compressive strength. The machine consists of a
vertical frame where samples are clamped and
subjected to controlled loads, while a connected
computer records the test data. The yellow boundary
marks a designated safety zone around the equipment
to ensure safe operation .

Specimens
When testing aluminum and cast iron specimens in a Universal Testing Machine, different fracture
types form based on the properties of each material:

1. Aluminum:
Aluminum is known for its high ductility and ability to undergo deformation before
breaking. When subjected to tensile stress, it typically exhibits a
ductile fracture. This type of fracture is characterized by
significant elongation of the specimen before failure, with
irregular and jagged edges. The fracture surface often looks
fibrous, showing the material has undergone substantial plastic
deformation before breaking.

2. Cast Iron:
Cast iron is brittle and lacks high ductility. When subjected
to tensile stress, it tends to exhibit a brittle fracture. This
type of fracture is characterized by a smooth and sharp
fracture surface, with a sudden failure of the material
without much visible deformation. The fracture in cast iron
is usually clean and almost straight, with cracks and sharp
angles indicating rapid and sudden material failure.
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3. Steel :
Steel typically exhibits a ductile fracture when tested,
especially in mild steel, showing significant elongation an
cup-
and-cone shaped break. This indicates that the material
deforms considerably before failure. In contrast, high-
carbon
steel can exhibit a more brittle fracture, with a cleaner,
sharper break and less deformation.

cross head load cell

The stress system in the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is designed to apply tensile or
compressive forces to specimens for analyzing material properties. It uses precise sensors to
measure the stresses applied to the sample during testing, such as tensile or compressive stress.
This system can monitor force and elongation in real time, helping to determine a material’s
resistance to fractures and deformations. Its main function is to assess how materials behave
under
different
loads,
providing
insights
into

mechanical properties like strength, toughness, and ductility.

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extensometer
An extensometer is a device used to measure the change in length or strain of a specimen during
mechanical testing, such as tensile or compression tests. It provides accurate, real-time data on how much a
material stretches or compresses under applied forces, helping to calculate its mechanical properties like
elasticity and ductility. The extensometer plays a key role in determining the strain-stress relationship of
materials.

Part 2 :Steel Specimen with Strain Gauges

(instrument and specimens):

The image shows a Universal Testing Machine (UTM),

which is typically used to evaluate the mechanical
properties of materials under various load conditions,
such as tension, compression, or bending.

In this machine:

1. The top arrow points to the upper load cell or crosshead. This component is responsible
for applying force to the test specimen, either pulling (for tensile tests) or pressing (for
compressive tests). It moves up or down to control the force exerted on the material.

2. The lower arrow points to the lower load cell or grips, which securely hold the test
specimen in place during the experiment. This ensures the sample stays aligned and
positioned correctly while the force is applied.

The machine can apply a range of forces (in this case, up to 100 kN), measuring how materials
respond to different stress and strain conditions. It is used to
determine important material properties such as tensile strength,
yield strength, and elongation before fracture.

The image shows two key components commonly

used in material testing systems:

1. Strain Indicator (left, arrow pointing to it): This

device is used to measure strain from strain gauges
attached to a specimen during testing. It provides precise
readings of how much the material deforms under applied loads, offering valuable data for
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calculating properties like stress and elasticity. The strain indicator has various controls to
calibrate and adjust readings, ensuring accurate strain measurement during tests.

2. Switch and Balance Unit (right, arrow pointing to it): This unit allows the user to switch
between different strain gauges or sensors connected to
the system. It balances the circuits to ensure proper strain
gauge operation, eliminating any signal drift or
inaccuracies.

The knobs and connectors allow for fine-tuning and

configuration during an experiment, ensuring multiple
channels are correctly monitored.

The image shows a dual-channel DC power supply with two digital displays, one for
each channel, to show the output voltage and
current. The function of this device is to provide
stable, adjustable voltage or current to power
electronic devices or circuits. It is essential for
testing and safely operating electrical and
electronic circuits in a controlled manner.

Specimens
The image shows two metal samples equipped with strain gauges, which are used to measure
dimensional changes under applied force. In each sample, the strain gauge is attached to the
surface with adhesive materials, and fine wires are connected to transmit electrical signals when
dimensions change. This type of setup is commonly used in tensile testing to determine the
properties of materials under load.

Discussion:
The tensile test conducted on three different materials—steel, aluminum, and gray cast iron—
revealed important insights into their mechanical properties.

Steel demonstrated high strength, with an ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of approximately 777
MPa and a true fracture strength exceeding 1030 MPa. These values highlight its ability to
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withstand high stress before fracturing. The high modulus of toughness (6.52 J/m³) and percent
elongation (42.12%) also suggest significant ductility, meaning steel can absorb a large amount of
energy before failure. However, the significant reduction in area (49.57%) indicates that necking
occurred before the material fractured, which is typical for ductile materials.

Aluminum, in contrast, showed much lower UTS at around 478 MPa and a true fracture strength of
725 MPa, indicating a lower load-bearing capacity compared to steel. Its ductility, while still
considerable, was less than steel's, with a percent elongation of 22.68%. The modulus of
toughness (50.1 J/m³) was also significantly lower, reinforcing that aluminum absorbs less energy
before failure. This suggests aluminum is more suitable for applications where moderate strength
and high corrosion resistance are required.

Gray cast iron, a brittle material, exhibited much lower mechanical properties, with a UTS of only
243 MPa and a very low modulus of toughness (0.371 J/m³).

The percent elongation was negligible, indicating that gray cast iron fractures almost immediately
upon reaching its tensile limit. This brittle behavior is typical for cast iron and aligns with its
applications in structures requiring compressive rather than tensile strength.

When analyzing the results from the steel specimen with strain gauges, the calculated Young's
modulus was around 69.86 GPa, which is lower than the expected 200 GPa for standard steel. This
discrepancy could stem from several experimental factors, such as misalignment of the strain
gauges, incorrect calibration, or material inconsistencies. However, the Poisson's ratio (0.33) was
consistent with standard values for steel, indicating that the lateral strain measurements were
accurate.

Conclusion:
The tensile test results for steel, aluminum, and gray cast iron clearly illustrate the differences in
their mechanical behavior. Steel showed superior strength and ductility, making it suitable for
high-stress applications. Aluminum, while less strong, displayed moderate ductility and
toughness, making it an excellent material for lightweight and corrosion-resistant applications.
Gray cast iron, as expected, performed poorly in tension due to its brittleness, reinforcing its use in
applications where compressive forces dominate.

The experimental values for Young’s modulus and Poisson's ratio for steel were relatively close to
standard values, although the significant difference in Young's modulus suggests that
improvements in the experimental setup could lead to more accurate measurements. This report
highlights the importance of understanding material properties in engineering applications and
how tensile tests can help in selecting appropriate materials for different structural requirements.

References and sources:

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I. [Link]

II. [Link]

III. [Link]

IV. [Link]
properties-of-open-sections-_bk122.pdf