FOURTH EDITION
TEACHING by
PRINCIPLES
AN INTERACTIVE APPROACH
TO LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY
H. DOUGLAS BROWN
San Francisco State University
HEEKYEONG LEE
Monterey Institute of International Studies
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Preface, xiii
PART I. FOUNDATIONS FOR CLASSROOM PRACTICE 1
Chapter 1 Getting Started 2
A Classroom Observation, 3
Analyzing the Lesson,8
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 11
For Your Further Reading, 12
Chapter 2 A Century of Language Teaching 1'^
What Do We Mean by Method? 15
Changing Winds and Shifting Sands, 17
The "Early" Years, 17
Classical and Grammar Translation Methods, 17
Gouin's Series Method, 19
The Direct Method, 20
The Audiolingual Method, 21
The "Designer" Methods Era, 23
Community Language Learning, 23
Suggestopedia, 24
The Silent Way, 25
Total Physical Response and the Natural Approach, 26
The Dawning of a New Era, 28
Notional-Functional Syllabuses, 28
Communicative Language Teaching, 30
For the Teacher; Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 34
For Your Further Reading, 38
III
IV Contents
Chapter 3 Contextualizing Communicative Approaches 39
The Postmethod Condition, 40
The Dysfunction of the Theory-Practice Dichotomy, 41
An Informed Eclectic Approach, 42
General Approaches, 44
Learner-Centered Instruction, 45
Task-Based Language Teaching, 46
Theme-Based Instruction, 49
Experiential and Project-Based Learning, 50
Strategies-Based Instruction, 51
Other Collaborative Approaches, 55
Specific Approaches, 56
Content-Based Language Teaching, 57
Immersion and Sheltered Models, 58
Bilingual Education, 59
Workplace and Vocational L2 Instruction, 60
Languages for Specific Purposes, 6l
Corpus-Based Teaching, 62
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 64
For Your Further Reading, 65
Chapter 4 Teaching by Principles 66
Automaticity, 67
Transfer, 69
Reward, 72
Self-Regulation, 74
Identity and Investment, 76
Interaction, 79
Languaculture, 81
Agency, 83
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 86
For Your Further Reading, 87
Chapter 5 Agency in Language Learning 88
Approaches to Understanding Agency, 89
Agency and Self-Efficacy, 90
Agency, Rewards, and Motivation, 91
Agency and Embodiment, 94
Cognition, Emotion, and Agency, 96
Agency in a Sociopolitical Context, 98
Enacting the Principle of Agency in L2 Classrooms, 100
Encourage Learners to Do Language, 100
Allow Learners' Voice to Develop, 101
Contents
Promote Perceptual Learning and Affordances, 102
Guide Students to Develop Self-Regulating Strategies, 103
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 104
For Your Further Reading, 105
PART II. CONTEXTS OF LEARNING 107
AND TEACHING
Chapter 6 Teaching Across Age Levels 108
Teaching Children: The Younger, the Better? 109
Intellectual Development, 110
Attention Span, 111
Sensory Input, 112
Affective Factors, 113
Authentic, Meaningful Language, 113
Teaching Adults: The "Adult Advantage"? 117
Teaching "In Between," 119
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 128
For Your Further Reading, 129
Chapter 7 Teaching Across Proficiency Levels 130
Defining Proficiency Levels, 131
FSI/ILR Levels, 131
lELTS Band Scale, 132
ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines, 133
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), 136
Teaching Beginning Levels, 139
Teaching Intermediate Levels: Beyond the "Plateau," 143
Teaching Advanced Levels, 150
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 153
For Your Further Reading, 154
Chapter 8 Cultural and Sociopolitical Contexts 150
Language and Culture, 156
Culture, Discourse, and Identity, 157
Contexts of Language Learning and Teaching, 160
Globalization and Language Education, l62
English in a Globalizing World, 162
English as an International Language, 163
NESTs and NNESTs, l65
Superdiversity, Transnational, and Translingual Practice, l66
Intercultural Competence, 167
Language Policy, l67
VI Contents
Institutional Contexts, 170
Elementary and Secondary Schools, 170
Post-Secondary and Adult Education, 172
Institutions of Higher Education, 173
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 174
For Your Further Reading, 175
PART III. PRACTICAL CLASSROOM CONSIDERATIONS 177
Chapter 9 Curriculum and Course Design 178
Defining Terms, 179
Overview of the Course Design Process, 180
A Personal Experience in Course Design, 180
Situation Analysis, 182
Needs Analysis, 183
Problematizing, 184
Specifying Goals, 187
Conceptualizing a Course Syllabus, 188
Selecting Textbooks, Materials, and Resources, 189
Assessment, 190
Course Revision, 191
A Personal Experience: The Rest of the Story, 192
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 193
For YourFurther Reading, 194
Chapter 10 Lesson Planning 196
"Beneath" the Lesson Plan, 196
Format of a Lesson Plan, 198
Guidelines for Lesson Planning, 202
A Sample Lesson Plan, 208
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 216
For Your Further Reading, 217
Chapter 11 Techniques,Textbooks, and Materials 219
Techniques Redefined, 219
Categorizing Techniques, 220
The Manipulation-Communication Continuum, 221
Controlled versus Open-Ended Techniques, 222
Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative Techniques, 223
A Taxonomy of Techniques, 225
Textbooks, 228
Textbook Adaptation, 228
Textbook Selection, 232
Other Classroom Aids and Materials, 232
Contents VII
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 235
For Your Further Reading, 236
Chapter 12 Technology in Language Learning and Teaching 251
Historical Developments, 238
Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), 238
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL), 239
Benefits of Technology Integration, 240
TESOL Technology Standards, 241
Opportunities for Interaction, 242
Access to Authentic Linguistic Data and Use, 243
Enacting Agency and Identity, 243
Opportunities for Cross-Cultural Learning, 244
Principles for Using Technology' in Language Teaching, 245
Classroom Applications, 247
Reading and Writing, 247
Listening and Speaking, 249
Grammar and Vocabulary Practice, 251
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 254
For Your Further Reading, 255
Chapter 13 Creating an Interactive Classroom 257
Exploring Interaction, 258
Interactive Principles, 259
Interactive Teachers, 259
Interactive Students, 26l
Initiating Interaction: Questioning Strategies, 262
Functions and Advantages of Teacher Questions, 262
Display and Referential Questions, 264
Categories of Referential Questions, 264
Other Means of Stimulating Interaction, 266
Group Work: The Standard Bearer of CLT, 267
Myths about Group Work, 268
Myth *1: The Teacher Is No Longer in Control of the Class, 269
Myth *2: Students Will Use Their Native Language, 269
Myth *3: Students' Errors Will Be Reinforced in Small Groups, 270
Myth *4: Teachers Cannot Monitor All Groups at Once, 271
Myth *5: Some Learners Prefer to Work Alone, 271
Myth *6: Diverse Student Learning Styles Complicate Group Work, 271
Advantages of Group Work, 272
Group Work Generates Interactive Language, 272
Group Work Offers an Embracing Affective Climate, 273
Group Work Promotes Learner Responsibility and Autonomy, 273
Group Work Is a Step Toward Individualizing Instruction, 273
VIII Contents
Implementing Group Work in Your Classroom, 274
Classroom Language, 274
Pair Work versus Group Work, 275
Group Work Techniques, 276
Planning and Initiating Group Work Tasks, 282
Monitoring the Task, 284
Debriefing (Processing) the Task, 285
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 286
For Your Further Reading, TSl
Chapter 14 Classroom Management 289
General Principles of Classroom Management, 289
The Physical Environment of the Classroom, 291
Sight, Sound, and Comfort, 291
Seating Arrangements, 292
Chalkboard (Whiteboard) Use, 292
Equipment, 293
Your Voice and Body Language, 293
Unplanned Teaching: Midstream Lesson Changes, 295
Teaching Under Adverse Circumstances, 296
Teaching Large Classes, 296
Teaching Multiple Proficiency Levels in the Same Class, 298
"Target Language Only" in the Classroom? 299
Compromising with the "Institution," 301
Discipline, 301
Cheating, 302
Teachers' Roles and Styles, 304
Roles, 304
Teaching Styles, 304
Cultural Expectations, 305
Creating a Positive Classroom Climate, 306
Establish Rapport, 306
Balance Praise and Criticism, 307
Generate Energy, 308
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 309
For Your Further Reading, 311
PART IV. TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS 313
Chapter 15 Teaching Listening 314
Integrating the Four Skills, 315
Listening Comprehension in Pedagogical Research, 316
A Historical Sketch, 316
Myths and Pedagogical Objectives, 318
Contents IX
An Interactive Model of Listening Comprehension, 319
Types of Spoken Language, 321
What Makes Listening Difficult? 323
Microskills and Macroskills of Listening, 326
Types of Classroom Listening Performance, 328
Principles for Teaching Listening Skills, 330
Listening Techniques from Beginning to Advanced, 333
A Sample Listening Lesson, 338
Assessing Listening in the Classroom, 340
Disambiguating the Terms Assessment and Test, 340
Assessing Types of Listening and Micro- and Macroskills, 342
For the Teacher; Activities(A)& Discttssion (D), 343
For Your Further Reading, 344
Chapter 16 Teaching Speaking 345
Oral Communication Skills in Pedagogical Research, 345
Conversational Discourse, 345
Teaching Pronunciation, 346
Accuracy and Fluency, 346
Complexity, 347
Affective Factors, 347
The Interaction Effect, 348
Intelligibility, 348
Corpus-Based Data on Spoken Language, 349
Genres of Spoken Language, 349
Types of Spoken Language, 349
What Makes Speaking Difficult? 350
Micro- and Macroskills of Oral Communication, 351
Types of Classroom Speaking Performance, 353
Principles for Teaching Speaking Skills, 356
Teaching Conversation, 358
Oral Communication for Academic Purposes, 369
Discussions, 369
Presentations, 371
Teaching Pronunciation, 371
Meaningful Minimal Pairs, 378
Other Oral Communication Techniques, 379
Focus on Form and Error Treatment, 380
The Role of Feedback, 380
How to Treat Errors, 381
Assessing Speaking in the Classroom, 384
Item Types and Tasks for Assevssing Speaking, 384
Evaluating and Scoring Speaking Tasks, 386
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 387
For Your Further Reading, 388
X Contents
Chapter 17 Teaching Reading 389
Research on Reading in a Second Language, 389
Genres of Written Language, 395
Characteristics of Written Language, 397
Micro- and Macroskills for Reading Comprehension, 400
Strategies for Reading Comprehension, 401
Types of Classroom Reading Performance, 408
Principles for Teaching Reading Skills, 409
Two Reading Lessons, 4l4
Assessing Reading, 422
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 423
For Your Further Reading, 424
Chapter 18 Teaching Writing 426
Research on Second Language Writing, 426
Types of Written Language, 435
Characteristics of Written Language: A Writer's View, 435
Micro- and Macroskills for Writing, 437
Types of Classroom Writing Performance, 438
Imitative or Mechanical Writing, 438
Intensive or Controlled Writing, 439
Self-Writing, 439
Display Writing, 440
Real Writing, 440
Principles for Teaching Writing Skills, 442
Two Writing Lessons, 447
Assessing Writing in the Classroom, 456
Evaluation Checklists, 456
Writing Assessment Tasks, 458
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 459
For Your Further Reading, 460
Chapter 19 Teaching Grammar and Vocabulary 462
Grammar,463
Three Dimensions of Grammar, 463
Grammar and Discourse, 464
Emergent Grammar, 465
Approaches to Form-Focused Instruction, 466
Explicit Presentation of Forms, 466
Implicit Presentation of Forms, 469
Focus on Form, 469
Feedback on Errors, 470
A Lexicogrammatical Approach, 471
Contents XI
Principles for Teaching Grammar, 473
Grammar Techniques, 474
Teaching Vocabulary, 480
Historical Perspectives, 480
Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary, 481
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Disctission (D), 485
For Yoitr Farther Reading, 486
PART V. ASSESSING LANGUAGE SKILLS 487
Chapter 20 Language Assessment: Principles and Issues 488
Defining Test and Assessment, 488
Principles of Language Assessment, 490
Practicality, 491
Reliability, 491
Validity, 492
Authenticity, 496
Washback, 497
Kinds of Tests, 499
Proficiency Tests, 499
Diagnostic Tests, 500
Placement Tests, 500
Achievement Tests, 500
Aptitude Tests, 501
Issues in Language Assessment, 502
Large-Scale Tests of Language Ability, 502
Authenticity, 503
Performance-Based Assessment, 504
Expanding the "IQ" Concept of Intelligence, 505
Alternatives in Classroom-Based Assessment, 506
The "Social Turn" and Language Assessment, 507
Critical Language Assessment, 508
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 510
For Your Further Reading, 511
Chapter 21 Classroom-Based Assessment 513
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests, 514
Some Practical Steps to Test Construction, 515
Transforming and Adapting Existing Tests, 521
Alternatives in Assessment, 525
Portfolios, 526
Journals, 527
Conferences, 528
XII Contents
Observations, 529
Self- and Peer-Assessments, 531
Scrutinizing the Alternatives, 532
Maximizing Practicality and Reliability, 532
Performance-Based Assessment, 534
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 536
For Your Further Reading, 537
PART VI.1TFP.1.0NG LEARNING 539
Chapter 22 Teacher Development 540
Peak Performers, 542
Effective Language Teachers, 545
Classroom Observation, 548
Classroom-Based "Action" Research, 554
Teacher Collaboration: Learning from Each Other, 559
Further Avenues of Professional Development, 564
The Multiple Roles of a Language Teacher, 568
For the Teacher: Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 570
For Your Further Reading, 572
Chapter 23 Teachers for Social Responsibility 574
Critical Pedagogy, 575
Teaching as a Subversive Activity, 575
Some Cautionary Observations, 576
Controversial Issues in the Language Classroom, 578
Moral Dilemmas and Moral Imperatives, 581
Agents for Change, 584
For the Teacher. Activities(A)& Discussion (D), 585
For Your Further Reading, 586
Bibliography, 589
Glossary, 628
Name Index, 641
Subject Index, 646
Credits, 667