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Ultrasonic Formulae & Useful TiDs
1.

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brf

Velocity/Wavelength/Frequency relationship: C = Velocity (mmi sec)

C=fxA

f
I

= Wavelength (mm)

= Frequency (Hz)

Snells Law = This law is applicable to both light and sound' Snells Law shows angular relationships. Snells Law = The reflection and refraction of sound energy:-

sinol = Velociwl

sin01 = Angle in medium 1 sin02 - Angle in medium 2

Velocityl = Velocity in medium 1 Velocity2 = Velocity in medium 2

sin02

Velocity2

Angles are always measured from the vedical axis

3.

boundaries Acoustic Impedance - Determines the transmission of sound across (Z = Density x Velocity).
b.

Acoustic Impedance

= Ratio of Reflectedflransmitted Sound:-

!\ = !e4-tr - lz. -

7,12 R" (27 * irl' "

R = Amount of reflected energy o/o

Ro

zl = Acoustic impedance in material 22 = Acoustic impedance in material

= Amount of incident energY

1000/0
1

(Not usually required for Level 1or 2 exams)

5.

calculate Near Zone:-

N=D2
4A

N = Near Zone (mm) D = Diameter of Probe (mm) I = Wavelength (mm)

Expression of signal height variations in dBs:dBs = 20 Log Hr

?,2

Hr = Height 1 (o/o of FSH) Hz = Height 2 (o/o of FSH)

Height 1 is the larger of the two heights'

March 2008

CODE: Ultrasonic Formulae & Useful Tips

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b,avel Stu. {- E riA,

h,r^V, ve1".4=,n]un -Ln-\, U.i I L,*t J.lkUt4bk- pt dwL.-t E oa'.,-L

(7. 8. Rule of Thumb:Focussed Probes:

lncicle^t

ctnPr'lr-= A '11t

t^

- . (- 1.-*\
'?
._

\e"t
^

P,

t*b<t

(o,t*-.
.1

,'it",t

*.J.r,

Vz.f.'oa.,.!

Ar'-r..,

at

Smallest detectable flaw is half a wavelenqth Ideal for critical sizing They do not have a dead zone Used for thickness gauging thin material

Frequency Selection:-

IHigh Frequency] Good Resolution High Sensitivity Poor Penetration Large Near Field Short Dead Zone Narrow Beam Profile
10.

ILow Frequency] Poor Resolution Low Sensitivity Good Penetration Short Near Fleld Long Dead Zone Wide Beam Profile

2.s.
Pc^u,r

[",,n

d
.

R"* ol*h"n

Probe Choice:Tl

:[Link] [Link]

[Small Diameter]
Poor Penetration

High Penetration Narrow Beam Profile Large Near Field

11.

Wide Beam Profile Short Near Field

(uio J*'fi .kl : ,\J 1h,11 n t4\ c' rr"*;)

Twin Crystal Probes:Delay

These are all fixed focus probes (no dead zone) Dead zone is removed Used for thin material

12.

-Iip

Probes:-

l'

$a,",uufr - Tr+$5 flr) r,,n,u - I,e c:.et-e-

Water Column Probes:- Used for testing moving parts Also known as Gap Scanning
14.

Bandwidth:Shear lvlodulus:Audible Sound:-

Is the range of useful frequencies

Does not exist in liquids or gases (i.e. no shear wave) Ranges between 20 and 20,000 Hz

lt.
10.

a. b.
18.

Attenuation:Attenuation (A)

The loss in energy as sound travels through a medium Caused by absorption, scatter. conversion to heat etc.

= f5-6)

S - dB Difierence between 2 selected echoes 2T T- section thickness

Refraction :

Bending of sound/light (from one medium to another) Bending of sound/light (within the same medium)

19.

Diffraction:A-Scan:B-Scan:C-Scan:-

20.

Amplituddf against l'ime (Distance)

1."*,

tool' i-"kL c." ' u,t( r-r\\ ro?l-r-nk x"( u*,. \*."1 {hur. ,.. vc'.cLttb,^'
Itlarch 2008

-> --; Probe Travel rf against Probe Travel ->

Depth (l'ime)V against Probe Travel

(Sectional View)
(Plan View)

CODE: Ultrasonic Formulae & Useful Tips

,t

u
21.C'
Longitudinal

Wave:-

Longest wavelength for a given material material

r. (c

N. (^,..ln1u'*.1:"' surface wave:,ll ;V"i

22. 73.
porosity.

Approximately y, longitudinal velocity Approximately

e/10

o/ {n.n

lv\pf'85,rc ,r g,.,ar5a-(*r,rh

shear

velocity

or

,^ar1\e\

X.'

fLi'* ['t"u[t

fi

Dampness gives rise to porosity in welds.

Mix amp sizing technique is used for diffuse multi faceted defects such as crack or

24. 25, 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

20 dB drop sizing is used for specular defects such as LOF. Critical rool scans are carried out using a probe with the shoftest beam path and the least attenuation i.e. 45o. For thinner materials a 600 or 70" probe may be used.
Lamellar tearing is due to lack of through wall ductility and generally occurs in cruciform or

T welds.
Slag occurs due to poor weld manipulation, poor welding practice and poor cleaning of Drevious Dasses.

Tandem scanning uses two probes on the same side of the weld whilst TOFD inspection uses two probes mounted on opposite sides of the weld.
Ghost echoes are generated when too many pulses are used, i.e. the PRF is too high. Spurious signals come from non-related areas not associated with defects.

The weld centre line is the weakest point on a weld as it solidifies last and is susceptible to
cracking.

When welding, the welder works to a sequence to lay down individual weld runs.
Beam divergence occurs in the far field and signals reduce exponentially.

Short pulses give better resolution. High frequency probes have narrow beam spreads.
Decibel is a comDarative measure of two sound intensities.

!w"i

c,rufltr{ttc{r'.

C" f."b,^ (r.,[Link],.\\)

'llps coDE: Ultrasonic Formulae & Useful

14arch 2008

LEVEL 2 WELDS POINTS TO CONSIDER

SPECIFIC THEORY ULTRASONIC INSPECTION INCLUDING PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY

1.

Dampness gives rise to porosity in welds'

Max amp sizing technique is used for diffuse multi-faceted defects such as cracks or porosity.

2.

20 dB drop sizing is used for specular defects such as LOF'

4.

Critical root scans are carried out using a probe with the shoftest beam path and the least attenuation, i.e. 45o. For thinner materials a 60o or 70" probe may be used.
Lamellar tearing is due to lack of through wall ductility and generally occurs in cruciform or T welds. Slag occurs [Link] poor weld manipulation, poor welding practice and poor cleaning of Previous Passes.

5.

6.

7.

Tandem scanning uses two probes on the same side of the weld whilst TOFD inspection uses two probes mounted on opposite sides of the weld.
Ghost echoes are generated when too many pulses are used, i'e' the PRF is too high. Spurious signals come form non-related areas not associated with defects.

B.

9.

10.

The weld centre line is the weakest point on a weld as it solidifies last and is susceptible to cracking '
When welding the welder works to a sequence to lay down individual welo runs. Beam divergence occurs in the far field and signals reduce exponentially. Snell's law shows angular relationships.

11.

12.

lJ.

CODE: PROD TECH WELDI4ENTS POINTS TO CONSIDER

December 2009

14.

Shnrt nttlspc nive h4ftg; resolUtion.

High frequency probes have narrow beam spreads. Sharp changes in section such as undercuts can lead to fatinue cracking in service. The greater the percentage of elements such as carbon, chromium, molybdenum and vanadium the greater the susceptibility to cracking. Grinding to remove scratches and notches will reduce the risk of fatigue failure. Rusty weld preparation/ damp fluxes and ineffective gas shielding can give rise to porosity/blowhole type indications.

15, 76. 17. 18. 19. 20. 2L 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Too fast a travel speed may result in lack of fusion.

Electro-slag welding requires the least weld preparation. Backing bars can be used to improve root penetration and fusion at the toes. Run off tabs are used to prevent stop/start cracks occurring in the actual weldment.

Any weldment not under restraint whilst welding and subsequent cooling may show angular distortion.
Arc strikes on the parent member are caused by poor welding practice and will give hard spots which are very susceptible to cracking. Backing bars which are to be removed after welding are attached to thc narenf maforial r r<inn fark rarcld<

Helium is used to weld materials such as copper whlch has high thermal conductivity.
Stress relieving is used to reduce stresses within a weld without substantial softening. Annealing and normalising are both carried out above the recrystallisation point.

CODE: PROD TECH WELDN1ENTS POINTS TO CONSIDER

December 2009

30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.

Slag inclusions can only be formed when using slag shield processes such as sub arc (SAW) and manual metal arc (MMA) welding.

The cooling process in welding is similar but quicker to that of a casting. When using the MMA process it is necessary to change electrodes frequently. Crater cracks are usually star shaped. Linearity of the time base is +1%. Linearity of the amplifier is +2o/o.
Gas shielded processes include Tungsten inert gas, metal ineft gas and metal argon gas.

Concave root or 'suck back' is caused by shrinkage of/in the molten root weld.

CODE: PROD TECH WELDMENTS POINTS TO CONSIDER

December 2009

Trigonometrv
r--;1
iq-

{^!

Depth of Reflector (Adjacent)

6*o rst -rwff*\

Standoff (Opposite)

SOH-CAH-TOA

sin1 --

Hvp

cos7

Hvp

t""g:#
UT

Trig Handout