Science notes: Disease and immunity
Infectious disease
Infectious disease are caused by pathogens and are transmissible
A transmissible disease has a pathogens that can be passed from one host to another host
pathogens are transmitted
Indirect transmission can happen through:
Breathed in droplets containing pathogen
The movement of a pathogen from one host to another host is called transmission.
The entry of the pathogen into the body is known as infection
Direct transmission occurs when an infected person directly contacts an uninfected person.
Diseases
Controlling the spread of disease with:
A clean water supply
Hygienic food preparation
clean personal hygiene
Proper waste disposal
Proper sewage treatment
Disease agents
Infectious diseases can be caused by: Viruses, bacteria, fungi, prototists
Active immunity is a defense against a pathogen by antibody production in the body
Active immunity is gained after an infection by a pathogen or by vaccination
Each pathogen has its own antigens, which have specific shapes
Antibodies are proteins that bind to antigens leading to direct destruction of pathogens or
marking of pathogens for destruction by phagocytes
Specific antibodies have complementary shapers which fit specific antigens
The vaccination process:
Weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into the body
The antigens stimulate an immune response by lymphocytes, which produce antibodies
Memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity
GAS EXCHANGE AND REPIRATION
Gas exchange is the process of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanging between the body and the
environment
Inhalation: drawing air into the lungs, increasing the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli
Exhalation: expelling air from the lungs and releasing carbon dioxide
Alveoli: tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs
Capillaries: tiny blood vessels that surround the alveoli
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration
Diaphragm: a muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, aiding in
breathing
Respiratory center: a part of the brainstem that regulates breathing
Blood pH: a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of blood
Nose: filters and warms air, traps dust and germs
Trachea: a tube like structure carrying air to the lungs
Lungs: spongy organs where gas exchange happens
Respiration is vital for life as it
0 provides oxygen for cellular respiration
Removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular metabolism
Regulates blood pH by controlling carbon dioxide levels
Aids in thermoregulation by adjusting breathing rates
Respiration occurs within cells, specifically in organelles called mitochondria
Mitochondria are like tiny power plants, converting glucose from food into isable energy
There are two main types of respiration: aerobic and anaerobic
Our cells release chemical energy from glucose by combining glucose with oxygen. This is
aerobic respiration
C6H12O6 C3H6O3
Glucose lactic acid
COORDINATION AND RESPONSE
Stimuli: changes in the environment that can be detected by organisms
Receptors: cells or groups of cells that can detect stimuli
Effectors: part of the body that respond to a stimulus; muscles and glands are effectors
Nerve: a group of neurons axons lying together
Neurone: cell specialized for conduction electrical impulse
Axon: a long thin, fibre of cytoplasm that extends from the cell body of a neuron
Dendrite: short fibre of cytoplasm in a neurone
Motor neurone: neurone that transmits electrical impulses from the central nervous system to an
effector
Reflex arc: series of neutron (sensory, relay and motor)
CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
Reflex action: a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with the
responses of effectors
Hormones: chemicals that are produce by a gland and carried in the blood, which after the
activities of their specific target organs
Endocrine glands: glands that are secrete hormones
Target hormones: organs whose activity is altered by a hormone
Adrenaline: A hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, which prepares the body for fight or
flight
Internal environment: the conditions inside the body
Homeostasis: the maintenance of a constant internal environment
Insulin: a hormone secreted by the pancreas, which decrease blood glucose concentration
Glucagon: A hormone secreted by the pancreas, which increase blood glucose concentration
Setpoint: The normal value or range of values for a particular parameter- for example, the normal
range of blood glucose concentration or the normal body temperature
Metabolism: chemical reactions that take place in living organisms
Sweat gland: a structure found in the skin of mammals, which secretes a watery fluid onto the
skin surface to reduce body temperature
Hypothalamus: part of the brain is involved in the control of body temperature
Reflex arc are rapid, automatic responses that don’t involve the brain
They involve a chain of reaction of neurons:
Sensory neuron detects a stimulus
Relay neuron transmits the signal to the spinal cord
Motor neuron sends a message to muscles, triggering a response
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external
changes
The body constantly monitors and adjusts carious parameters like temperature, pH,
blood sugar and oxygen lvels
Nervous and endocrine system play crucial roles in maintaining ho,eostasis through
feedback mechanism
ACID AND BASES
Properties of acids
Turn blue litmus red, sour, corrodes, burns body tissues, conducts electricity, H ions, less than
pH 7
Properties of bases
Turn red litmus blue, bitter, caustic, burns, feel slippery, OH- ions, greater than pH 7
Organic acids are acids made from living organisms
Example: citric acid(lemon), acetic acid( vinegar), lactic acid(inside muscles)
Mineral acids are acids formed from inorganic sources
Example: sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid
pH scale is a scale used to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions
pH indicators are chemicals that change color depending on the solution’s pH
a neutralization reaction is a type of reaction between an acid and a base that produces a salt and
water
a carbonate is a salt that contains a carbonate ion(CO3)
when acids react with carbonates, they produce carbon dioxide gas, water and a salt
oxides are compounds formed by the combination of oxygen with another element
acidic oxides are oxides that react with water to form acids
examples sulfur trioxide(SO3), carbon dioxide(CO2)
neutral oxides are oxides that don’t react with water to form an acid or a base
examples: carbon monoxide(CO), nitric oxide(NO)
Basic oxides are oxides that react with water to form a base.
Examples: calcium oxide(CaO), magnesium oxide(MgO)
KINETIC MODEL OF MATTER
The kinetic modal of matter is a way to understand the states of matter, their movement and
how particles transfer from state to state
All matter is made of very small particles
These particles are always in motion
The freedom of movement and particle arrangement changes from state to state
The pressure of a gas is made by particles hitting the walls of its container, more frequent hits
create higher pressure
when the temperature of a solid increases, the particles gain kinetic energy, vibrate faster and
expand. With increasing temperature, the particles gain enough energy to break free of the
regular arrangement and thus melt. when the temperature of a liquid increases, the particles
gain kinetic energy, move faster and expand. With increasing temperature, the particles at the
surface gain enough energy to evaporate. At the liquids boiling point, the particles break the
forces attracting them together and thus they boil
thermal properties of matter
specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
a substance by 1 degree Celsius. Materials with high specific heat capavity require more heat to
change temperature(e.g., water)
thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Metals are good conductors,
while wood is a poor conduction