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Sequences and Convergence in Rn

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31 views3 pages

Sequences and Convergence in Rn

Uploaded by

Sarah mehta
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Sequences in Rn

Ankush Garg, JSGP

Euclidean Structure of Rn
Consider the n-dimensional real space Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ R}. In the Linear Algebra
module, we have seen that Rn is a vector space over R under the operations:

(x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn ) and α(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (αx1 , . . . , αxn ),

for all (x1 , . . . , xn ), (y1 , . . . , yn ) ∈ Rn and α ∈ R. Any element of this space is called a vector.

Definition 1
Norm: The norm of a vector x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) is defined as:
q
||x|| = x21 + . . . + x2n .

Vector space Rn together with above defined norm, is called Normed Vector Space.

Definition 2
Euclidean Distance: Let d : Rn x Rn → R be defined as
p
d(x, y) = (x1 − y1 )2 + (x2 − y2 )2 + ........ + (xn − yn )2 .

Then d(x, y) is called Euclidean distance between two points, x and y in Rn . d satisfies the following for
all x, y, z ∈ Rn :

1. d(x, y) ≥ 0 with d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y


2. d(x, y) = d(y, x)

3. d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) – triangle inequality

Rn together with the distance d, that is, (Rn , d) is called a Euclidean Space.

Notice that d(x, y) = ||x − y|| for all x, y ∈ Rn . That is, the Euclidean distance between any two points
in Rn is same as the norm of the difference of two points in Rn .

Definition 3
Open-neighbourhood: Let x ∈ Rn and let  > 0 be a real number. The set:

V (x) = {y ∈ Rn : d(x, y) < }

is called the open-neighbourhood of x.

1
Definition 4
A sequence in Rn is a function f : N → Rn . As was the case for sequences in R, we let xn = f (n) and
we will use the notation

{xn } or (xk )k∈N or (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , ......)

to denote sequences in Rn , where xk = (xk1 , . . . , xkn ) is a vector in Rn for each k ∈ N. Another


convenient way of writing the sequences in Rn is

xn = (x(1) (2) (n)


n , xn , ...., xn )
(j)
where each xn is j th component sequence in R

Examples
Some sequences {xn } in R2 and R3 :
1. xn = (e, n2 ) = ((e, 0), (e, 1), (e, 4), (e, 9), ......)
 
1
2. xn = n+1 , n21+1 = ()(1, 1), (1/2, 1/2), (1/3, 1/5), (1/4, 1/10), .........)
 
1 1 1
3. xn = n+1 , n2 +1 , n3 +1 = ((1, 1, 1), (1/2, 1/2, 1/2), (1/3, 1/5, 1/9), (1/4, 1/10, 1/28), .........)
√ √ √ √
4. xn = (1, −1, 2) = ((1, −1, 2), (1, −1, 2), (1, −1, 2), .......)

Theorem 1
Let (xk )k∈N = (x1 , x2 , x3 . . .) be a sequence in Rn , and let p = (p1 , . . . , pn ) ∈ Rn . Then (xk )k∈N → p as
k → ∞ if and only if for each j = 1, . . . , n, xkj → pj as k → ∞.

That is, a sequence in Rn converges to a point p ∈ Rn if and only if, j th components of elements of this
sequence converge to j th components of point p for all j = 1, 2, 3, ...., n.

Proof
If part:
Let (xk )k∈N → p as k → ∞. Let xkj denote the jth component of xk . Then

|xkj − pj | ≤ ||xk − p|| for j = 1, 2, . . . , n and for all k ∈ N

Then it follows directly from the definition of convergence that ||xk − p|| → 0 as k → ∞. Combining
with the above inequality gives xkj → pj as k → ∞.

Only if part:
Suppose that for each integer j between 1 and n, xkj → pj as k → +∞. Let  > 0 be given. Then
there exist positive integers N1 , N2 , . . . , Nn such that |xkj − pj | < √n whenever k ≥ Nj . Let N be the
maximum of N1 , N2 , . . . , Nn . If k ≥ N , then k ≥ Ni for j = 1, 2, . . . , n, and therefore:
n  2
X 
||xk − p||2 = (xkj − pj )2 < n √ = 2 .
j=1
n

Since this holds for any given  > 0, however small, we have xj → p as k → ∞, as required.

2
Examples
n
1 (−1)
1. Show that the sequence xn = n, n in R2 is convergent. Find its limit.

(1) (2)
Solution: A sequence xn = (xn , xn ) converges if and only if each of its component sequences
converges in R.

(1)
The first component is xn = 1/n. We know, 1/n → 0 as n → ∞. This is beacuse, given any
 > 0, choose N > 1 . Then for all n ≥ N , we have

1 1
n> =⇒ 1/n <  =⇒ −0 <
 n

Hence, 1/n → 0 as n → ∞.

n n
(2)
The second component is xn = (−1) n . We know,
(−1)
n → 0 as n → ∞. This is because given any
1
 > 0, we choose N >  . Then for all n ≥ N , we have

1 (−1)n (−1)n
n> =⇒ 1/n <  =⇒ = −0 <
 n n
(−1)n
Hence, n → 0 as n → ∞

Since each component of xn converges to zero, it follows that the sequence xn → (0, 0) ∈ R2 .

n
1 (−1) 1

2. Let xn = n2 , n ,1 + n in R3 . Prove that the sequwnce converges and find its limit.

(1) (2) (3)


Solution: A sequence xn = (xn , xn ), xn ) converges if and only if each of its component sequences
converges in R.

(1)
The first component is xn = n12 . We know n12 → 0 as n → ∞. This is because given any  > 0,
choose N > √1 . Then for all n ≥ N , we have

1 1
n > √ =⇒ 2 = |1/n2 − 0| < 
 n
1
Hence, n2 → 0 as n → ∞.

n n
(2)
The second component is xn = (−1) n . We know,
(−1)
n → 0 as n → ∞. This is beacuse given any
1
 > 0, choose N >  . Then for all n ≥ N , we have

1 (−1)n (−1)n
n> =⇒ 1/n <  =⇒ = −0 <
 n n
(−1)n
Hence, n → 0 as n → ∞

(3)
The third component is (xn = 1 + n1 . We know, 1 + n1 → 1 as n → ∞. This is beacuse given any
 > 0, choose N > 1 . Then for all n ≥ N , we have
 
1 1
n> =⇒ 1/n <  =⇒ 1+ − 1 < .
 n
1
Hence, n+1 → 1 as n → ∞.

n
In conclusion, for the given sequence, we have xn = ( n12 , (−1) 1
n , 1 + n ) → (0, 0, 1).

Common questions

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Component functions are crucial in determining sequence convergence in n-dimensional real space \(R^n\). A sequence \( x_n = (x_1^{(n)}, x_2^{(n)}, ..., x_n^{(n)}) \) converges if and only if each component function \( x_j^{(n)} \) converges to a corresponding component \( p_j \). Effective analysis involves verifying that for every component \( j \), the condition \( |x_j^{(n)} - p_j| < \epsilon\) holds for sufficiently large \( n \). This approach leverages the fact that convergence in \(R^n\) depends on each component's behavior aligning with the structure of \(R\) and ensures convergence aligns with pointwise limits across all components .

A sequence \((x_k)\) in \(R^n\) converges to a point \(p = (p_1, ..., p_n)\) if and only if each j-th component of the sequence \(x_{kj} \to p_j\) as k approaches infinity. This means that for each component \(j\) from 1 to \(n\), the convergence of the sequence \((x_k)\) translates to the convergence of each specific sequence of components in \(R\). This implies that understanding the behavior of a sequence as a whole requires examining each component sequence individually as they all must converge to their corresponding components of \(p\).

For the sequence \( x_n = \left( \frac{1}{n}, \frac{(-1)^n}{n} \right) \) in \(R^2\) to converge, both its component sequences need to converge. The first component, \( \frac{1}{n} \to 0 \) as \( n \to \infty \) because given any \( \epsilon > 0 \), choosing \( N > \frac{1}{\epsilon} \) ensures \( \frac{1}{n} < \epsilon \) for all \( n \geq N \). The second component, \( \frac{(-1)^n}{n} \to 0 \) under similar conditions because its absolute value \( \frac{1}{n} < \epsilon \). Thus, both components converge to 0, so the sequence converges to \((0, 0)\) in \(R^2\).

The proof of convergence for a sequence \((x_k)\) in \(R^n\) utilizes the properties of the Euclidean norm by demonstrating that the distance \(||x_k - p||\) approaches zero as \(k\) increases, where \(p\) is the limit point in \(R^n\). By leveraging the fact that \(||x_k - p||^2 = \sum_{j=1}^{n}(x_{kj} - p_j)^2\) is the squared norm, convergence is shown through \(|x_{kj} - p_j| < \epsilon/\sqrt{n}\), ensuring \(||x_k - p||^2 < \epsilon^2\), thus proving that the sequence tends to \(p\) as required by component convergence .

An open-neighborhood of a point \(x\) in \(R^n\) is defined as the set \(V_\epsilon(x) = \{y \in R^n : d(x, y) < \epsilon\}\), where \(\epsilon > 0\) is a real number. This concept is critical in Euclidean spaces for understanding the local topology around a point. It aids in defining concepts such as continuity, limits, and differentiability by providing a framework for considering points within an arbitrarily small distance from a given point, enabling the exploration of the local behavior of functions in \(R^n\).

The Euclidean norm of a vector \(x = (x_1, ..., x_n)\) in \(R^n\) is defined as \(||x|| = \sqrt{x_1^2 + ... + x_n^2}\). This norm is directly related to the Euclidean distance between two points \(x\) and \(y\) in \(R^n\), which is given by \(d(x, y) = ||x - y|| = \sqrt{(x_1 - y_1)^2 + ... + (x_n - y_n)^2}\). Hence, the distance between two points is equivalent to the norm of their difference, completing the structure of a Euclidean space .

The triangle inequality is a fundamental property of the Euclidean distance which states that for any points \(x, y, z \in R^n\), the distance \(d(x, y)\) satisfies \(d(x, y) \leq d(x, z) + d(z, y)\). This property ensures that the direct path between two points is always the shortest and prevents any form of inconsistency where the indirect route might appear shorter. It plays a crucial role in validating the axiomatic definitions of metrics and upholding the intuitive sense of 'distances' in Euclidean spaces, confirming that they behave like physical distances in the real world .

A normed vector space in \(R^n\) includes the vector space \(R^n\) itself along with a norm function that assigns a non-negative length or size to each vector in that space. Specifically, the Euclidean norm \(||x|| = \sqrt{x_1^2 + ... + x_n^2}\) defines the length of a vector \(x\) in \(R^n\). This norm incorporates the standard Euclidean structure, providing a basis for concepts such as length, distance, and angle, vital for various mathematical applications in this space .

The sequence \( x_n = \left( \frac{1}{n^2}, \frac{(-1)^n}{n}, 1 + \frac{1}{n} \right) \) in \(R^3\) converges if each of its components converges. The first component \( \frac{1}{n^2} \to 0 \) as \( n \to \infty \) since given any \( \epsilon > 0 \), choosing \( N > \frac{1}{\sqrt{\epsilon}} \) ensures \( \frac{1}{n^2} < \epsilon \) for \( n \geq N \). The second component \( \frac{(-1)^n}{n} \to 0 \) under similar logic. The third component \( 1 + \frac{1}{n} \to 1 \) since \( \frac{1}{n} < \epsilon \) for large \( n \). Consequently, the sequence converges to \((0, 0, 1)\) in \(R^3\).

The sequence \( x_n = (1, -1, \sqrt{2}) \) is constant, meaning every element in the sequence is identical. A sequence converges in \(R^3\) if its limit exists such that the distance between sequence elements and the limit approaches zero as \(n\) increases. In this case, since all elements are the same, there is no variation that approaches another point, hence convergence cannot proceed to a different point. The sequence remains everywhere \((1, -1, \sqrt{2})\), indicating the sequence trivially converges to itself, without a meaningful external convergence trajectory .

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