Chapter 18- THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
OVERVIEW OF CELL COMMUNICATION
Gap junctions pores in the cell membrane that
allow signaling chemicals to move from cell to cell.
Neurotransmitters released form neurons to
travel across synapse to 2nd cell
Paracrine (local) hormones secreted into
interstitial fluid to affect nearby cells within the
same tissue
Hormones(strict definition) chemical
messengers that travel in the bloodstream
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Hormone chemical messenger secreted into
bloodstream stimulating a response in another
tissue or organ
Target cells have receptors for the hormone
Endocrine glands produce hormones
o Endocrine system endocrine glands (thyroid, pineal, etc.)
o Also hormone producing cells in organs
o E.g. brain, heart, small intestine
Endocrine glands Exocrine glands
No ducts “ductless” Ducts carry secretions to a surface or
Release hormones in tissue fluids organ cavity
Have a dense capillary network to Have extracellular effects
distribute hormones i.e. food digestion
Intracellular effects alter target
metabolism
Anabolism building molecules from smaller building blocks
Metabolism
Catabolism breaking down into smaller molecules
NERVOUS vs. ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
1. Communication
a. Neurons both electrical and chemical
b. Endocrine only chemical
2. Speed and persistence of response
a. Nervous system reacts quickly 1-10m sec stops quickly
b. Endocrine reacts slowly (hormone release within seconds or days) effects may continue
for weeks
3. Adaptation to long-term stimulus
a. Nervous response declines ( quickly adapts)
b. Endocrine response persists
4. Area of effect
a. Nervous targeted to one organ at a time
b. Endocrine widespread effects on many organs
NERVOUS and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Several chemicals work as both hormones and neurotransmitters
E.g. NE (Norepinephrine)
o Dopamine
o ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
Some hormones secreted by neuroendocrine cells (neurons) e.g. Oxytocin
Both systems have overlapping effects on the same target cells
NE and glucagons both cause glycogen hydrolysis (breakdown glycogen to release glucose) in liver.
o Glycogen—large storage molecule:: Glucose—simple sugar
Systems regulate each other
o Neurons trigger hormone secretion
o Hormones stimulate and inhibit neurons
HYPOTHALAMUS
Shaped like a flat head funnel, forms the floor and walls of the third ventricle
Regulates primitive function
o Water balance to sex drive
PITUITARY GLAND
a.k.a. Hypophsis
suspended from the hypothalamus by a stalk
Pituitary hormones target other endocrine glands
Gonadotrophins target gonads
FSH follicle stimulating hormone
LH Lutenizing hormone
o Part of menstrual cycle process
TSH thyroid stimulating hormone
GH Growth hormone
PRL Prolactin—stimulating milk production
Hypothalamo-Hypoohyseal (pituitary) Portal System
Hormones travel in a portal system (capillary bed drains into another capillary bed through veins) from
hypothalamus to pituitary
Hormones made in hypothalamus and secreted by pituitary
Oxytocin and ADH made in hypothalamus and transport to pituitary, which stores and releases them
PITUITARY HORMONE ACTIONS:
FSH: stimulates production of egg or sperm cells
LH: mainly stimulates hormone production.
o For females LH stimulates ovulation and stimulates the corpus luteum (yellow body) to
secret progesterone and estrogen
Menstrual Cycle: follicle develops, releases egg, then becomes the corpus luteum
o For Males LH stimulates cells in testes to secrete testosterone
TSH: stimulates the growth of thyroid gland and secretion of thyroid hormone
GH: promotes tissue growth
o Increase in mitosis and cellular differentiation
o Increase in DNA transcription and mRNA production and many other metabolic effects
Growth Hormone and Aging
Childhood and adolescence bone cartilage and muscle growth
o Stimulates growth at epiphyseal plate
Adulthood affects bone thickening and remodeling
At age 75 blood concentration of GH decreases to ¼ that of adolescent.
Levels of GH fluctuate throughout the day
Higher during sleep
Higher after high protein
meals
Higher after vigorous
exercise
Lower after high
Carbohydrate meals
Oxytocin
Stimulates labor
contractions
Stimulates lactation and
emotional bonding
ADH
Targets kidneys
High water retention
Decreases urine volume
Also functions as a
neurotransmitter
Control of Pituitary
Hormones
Feedback from target organs
Negative Feedback:
increased target organ
hormone levels inhibit the release of organ-stimulating hormones (tropie)
E.g. --> when thyroid hormone levels are high enough, TSH production stops
Positive Feedback: stretching of the uterus causes high Oxytocin release causes more stretching of
uterus until delivery
Pineal Gland
Peak secretion between ages 1-5; by puberty 75% lower
Manufactures Serotonin by day and converts it into
melatonin at night
o Melatonin may regulate puberty in humans
o Also depression, sleepiness, irritability and
carbohydrate craving
Thymus
Makes T-cells, leukocytes
Location mediastnum: superior to heart
Secretes hormones that regulate the development and later
activation of
T-lymphocytes
a. Thymopoietoin and thymosins
THYROID GLAND
Largest endocrine gland; high rate of blood flow
Arises at the root of the embryonic tongue
Located at anterior and lateral sides of the trachea
Thyroid gland two large lobes connected by and isthmus
Effects of thyroid hormone
Increases body’s metabolism rate and Oxygen consumption
Increases heat production
Increases heart rate and contractile strength of the heart beat
Increases the respiratory rate
Stimulates appetite and break down of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
Calcitonin cells a.k.a. parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
o Produce calcitonin
o Calcitonin lowers blood Ca2+ levels and promotes Ca2+
deposition and bone formation
PARATHYROID GLAND
Release parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Increases blood calcium levels promotes synthesis of Calcitrol
(produced by kidneys and related to Vitamin D)
Calcitrol increases absorption of Ca2+ from digestive tract
Decreases the excretion of Ca2+, bone breakdown
ADRENAL GLAND
A.k.a. superenal glands
One adrenal gland sits on the superior border of each kidney roughly of the level of the 12th rib
Yellow and pyramid shaped
Outer cortex and inner medulla
Adrenal Medulla
o Releases epinephrine (commonly known as adrenaline-its in the epipen) and Norepinephrine
o Increases alertness, anxiety , or fear
o Raises blood pressure, heart rate, and air flow
o Raises metabolic rate
Adrenal Cortex
o Secretes corticosteroids
1. Aldosterone promotes Na+ retention and K+ excretion
2. Cortisol clinically used as anti-inflammatory but becomes immune suppression with long-
term use. Also stimulates fat and protein catabolism
3. Sex Steroids for males—converted to testosterone in other tissues
For females—estrogen (important to the female body)
PANCREAS
Slender and pale with a lumpy consistency
15cm long
inferior and dorsal to the stomach
exocrine pancreas 99% of pancreatic volume with digestive
enzymes digestive tract
Endocrine Pancreas pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
o Beta cells secretes insulin
Blood sugar levels are raised after a meal with
carbohydrates insulin is secreted to stimulate glucose
uptake and amino acid uptake by cells
insulin has opposite affect of glycogen
o Alpha Cells secretes glucagon
Secreted during fasting or during a low carb/ high
protein diet
Stimulates glycogenolysis and fat catabolism
Glycogenolysis when the body needs glucose, glycogen is broken down to get the
individual glucose molecules out.