Modern Geometry

Module 1: Sets of Axioms and Finite Geometries

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you should be able to:

a. identify and explain the concepts of axiomatic systems; and

b. apply the various properties of axiomatic systems to the given set of axioms.

1.1 Introduction to Geometry

Your ideas about geometry will probably change dramatically as you study this
text. Geometry is an extremely extensive field of mathematics; the typical high school
geometry course and analytic geometry form only one small part of this subject. In this
text, you will discover many different geometries, new practical applications of
geometry, and new approaches to geometry using computer software. Geometry
continues to develop as a major branch of contemporary mathematics.

The word geometry literally means “earth (geo) measure (metry).” Although this
literal meaning is far too narrow to include the various modern geometries explored in
this text, the idea of earth measure was important in the ancient, pre-Greek
development of geometry. These practical Egyptian, Babylonian, and Chinese
applications of geometry involved measurement, to a great extent, and they were not
complicated by formal proofs. All three civilizations used the correct formulas for the
area of a trapezoid and the volume of a rectangular solid and a cylinder, but all three
also used approximations for the area of a circle.

Hundreds of baked clay tablets from ancient Babylonia include mathematical

ideas. The analysis of a tablet designated Plimpton 322 (catalog number 322 in the
Plimpton collection at Columbia University) has shown that the Babylonians, as early as
about 1900–1600 B.C., had extended their knowledge of right triangles to a compilation
of primitive Pythagorean triplets. For example, the numbers 3, 4, and 5 are a primitive
triple because they can be used as the lengths of the sides of a right triangle and have
no common integral factors other than 1. The Babylonians used rules for finding areas
and volumes of some figures and are also given credit for dividing the circle into 360
parts.

Two ancient Egyptian papyruses dating from about the same period, the Moscow
papyrus and the Rhind papyrus, contain a total of 26 geometrical problems, most of
which involve various mensuration formulas used for computing land area and the
volume of granaries. Some problems concerned finding the slope of the face of a

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pyramid and the volume of a pyramid with the top sliced off (called a truncated
pyramid).

During the Greek period, the science of earth measure became more refined.
About 230 B.C., Eratosthenes made a remarkably precise measurement of the size of
the earth.

To many people today, however, the word geometry no longer suggests earth
measures. For example, mathematicians might describe the geometries included in this
text as the study of the properties and relationships of sets of points. To the typical
adult, though, the word geometry probably suggests the high school course taken in
plane geometry or possibly the use of coordinates for points encountered in the study of
algebra or calculus. The ancient Greeks of the period from 500 B.C. to A.D. 100 receive
much of the credit for developing the demonstrative geometry studied at the high school
level. They recognized the beauty of geometry as a discipline with a structure and
understood that the proof of a theorem could be even more exciting than the discovery
of a practical application.

Greek geometry, called Euclidean geometry because of the monumental work

of Euclid (ca. 300 B.C.), includes undefined terms, defined terms, axioms or postulates,
and theorems. Other geometries studied in this text have the same sort of structure, so
sets of axioms are one convenient means of classifying a geometry. The geometries in
following chapters are all approached from the axiomatic viewpoint. In Euclidean
geometry, undefined terms, which are arbitrary and could easily be replaced by other
terms, normally include terms such as points, lines, and planes; it would also be
possible to develop Euclidean geometry using such concepts as distance and angle and
keeping them undefined. Definitions of new words involve using the undefined terms.

Today, the words axiom and postulate are used interchangeably. In the
development of geometry, however, the word postulate was used for an assumption
confined to one.

Euclid’s geometry is historically the first major example of an axiomatic system.

Since one of the primary goals of teaching geometry in high school is to expose
students to reasoning, students often view geometry as a dead subject filled with two-
column proofs. However, many other recent articles provide evidence for an increasing
realization that the concepts and methods of geometry have become prevalent than
ever in today’s technological advancement.

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1.2 Introduction to Axiomatic Systems

Components of an Axiomatic System

1) Primitive or undefined terms are a set of technical terms that are chosen as
undefined and are subject to the interpretation of the reader.

In geometry, the common undefined terms are points, lines, and planes. However, in
this course any terms may be subjected as undefined terms which open to more
interpretation.

2) Defined terms are technical terms which are defined in terms of the primitive and/or
previously introduced definitions.

3) Axioms are unambiguous statements deal with the primitives and definitions of

the system that are accepted to remain unproven.

“Axioms denote as a universal truth which are more general assumptions that applied to
any or all mathematics.” (Smart, 1998, p.3)

Postulates are used for an assumption confined to one particular subject

(such as geometry).

Caution: Postulates and Axioms are used interchangeably.

4) Theorems are unambiguous statements that are proved logically from the

axioms and/or previously proven theorems.

Example 1: Consider the following set of axioms.

Axiom 1: Each committee is a set of three members.

Axiom 2: Each member is on exactly two committees.

Axiom 3: No two members may be together on more than one committee.

Axiom 4: There is at least one committee.

a. What are the undefined terms in this axiom set?

The undefined terms are the committee, members and on. Note that committee
and members are elements, and on is a relation since it indicates some relationship
between committee and members.

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Example 2: Consider the following axiom set.

Axiom 1: Every ant has at least two paths.

Axiom 2: Every path has at least two ants.

Axiom 3: There exists at least one ant.

a. What are the undefined terms in this axiom set?

The undefined terms are ant, path and has. Note that ant and path are
elements, and has is a relation since it denotes some relationship between ant and
path.

b. Prove Theorem 1. There exists at least one path.

Note that Axiom 3 guarantees the existence of an ant, but no axiom explicitly
states that there is a path. You need to prove the theorem to show the existence of a
path.

Proof.

By Axiom 3, there exists an ant. Now, since each ant must have at least two
paths by Axiom 1, there exists at least one path. ∎

Model for Axiomatic System

Giving each undefined term within the system with a specific meaning is called an
interpretation of the system.

Example: In geometry, points, lines and planes are undefined terms. Let consider
“points.” To make sense of this undefined term, you need to give meaning to it. Say
“points” will be represented as letter “A.” This means that “point” may be interpreted as
letter “A”. In an exceedingly formal description of “point” in geometry, it describes as a
location with no size, no width, no length and no depth. A point can be illustrated as dot.
An interpretation that produces an axiom true is said to satisfy that axiom. If there
exists an interpretation within which every axiom in a system becomes true, then the
system is said to be satisfiable. If a system is satisfiable, then such an interpretation is
called a model. In other words, if for a given interpretation of a system, all of the axioms
are “correct” statements, then the interpretation is a model.

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Definition: A model of an axiomatic system is obtained by assigning meaning to the
undefined terms of the axiomatic system to form the axioms become true statements
about the assigned concepts.

Two Forms of Models

1. Concrete models have interpretations of the undefined terms adapted from the real
world.

2. Abstract models have interpretations of the undefined terms taken from some other
axiomatic system such as the real number system.

Example 1. Show that the set of axioms has a model. Consider the following axiom sets
for Committee.

Axiom 1: Each committee is a set of three members.

Axiom 2: Each member is on exactly two committees.

Axiom 3: No two members may be together on more than one committee.

Axiom 4: There is at least one committee.

Before demonstrating the properties of the given set of axioms, it may be helpful
to make some observations about each statement or axiom. That’s why it is necessary
to understand what the set of axioms all about. This means to know what does each
axiom imply.

In this set of axioms, Axiom 1 shows the composition/existence of the number of

members in each committee. Hence, there are more than one committee formed as
guaranteed by Axiom 4. This set of axioms implies the composition of committee and its
conditions.

First, you need to interpret the undefined terms. From the given set of axioms for
Committee, the undefined terms are member and committee. To interpret the undefined
term “member”, you need to give meaning to it. Let say “members” will be interpreted as
names of individuals like Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza, Leslee, Jennelyn and Fhil. While for
undefined term “committees” will be interpreted as a group of individuals such as
{Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza}, {Gladys, Leslee, Jennelyn }, {Alyzza, Leslee, Fhil} and {Ryza,
Jennelyn, Fhil}. Note that this set of axioms can be illustrated in many ways. The table
below is the results of the interpretation of the given set of axioms.

Primitive terms Interpretation

Members Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza, Jennelyn, Leslee, Fhil

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 Committee {Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza}
{Gladys, Jennelyn, Leslee}
{Ryza, Jennelyn, Fhil}
{Alyzza, Leslee, Fhil}

Second, you need to check whether each axiom in the given set of axioms are
satisfied.

Axiom 1 states that “Each committee is a set of three members. To determine if

this axiom is true, you must look at each committee together with the number of
members. If the number of members for every committee is three, then the axiom is
satisfied.

Axiom 2 states that “Each member is on exactly two committees.” To check this
axiom, you look at each member, and list the number of committees they are on. If that
number is 2 for every member, then the axiom is true.

Member Committee Is Axiom 2 satisfied?

Gladys {Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza} , {Gladys, Jennelyn, yes
Leslee}
Alyzza {Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza} , {Alyzza, Leslee, Fhil} yes
Ryza {Gladys, Alyzza, Ryza} , {Ryza, Jennelyn, Fhil} yes
Jennelyn {Gladys, Jennelyn, Leslee} , {Ryza, Jennelyn, Fhil} yes
Leslee {Gladys, Jennelyn, Leslee} , {Alyzza, Leslee, Fhil} yes
Fhil {Alyzza, Leslee, Fhil} , {Ryza, Jennelyn, Fhil} yes

Axiom 3 states that “No two members may be together on more than one
committee.” For this axiom, you have to look at all pairs of members and make sure that
none of the pairs is on more than one committee. So, it is acceptable to have the pair of
members be on zero committee or one committee, but not two or more.

Axiom 4 states that “There is at least one committee.” Since the number of
committees is more than one in a given set of axioms, then the axiom is satisfied.

Since Axioms 1, 2, 3, and 4 are satisfiable, therefore the model for set of axioms
for committee exists ∎

Example 2: Axioms for Three – Point Geometry

1. There exist exactly three distinct points in the geometry.

2. Each two distinct points are on exactly one line.

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3. Not all the points of the geometry are on the same line.

4. Each two distinct lines are on at least one point.

Example 2: What kind of figures or models can be drawn to represent the geometry?
Show your answer.

Figure 1

Figure 1 shows different specific representations for three – point geometry. We

can verify that all four axioms hold for each figure.

Although the set of points and lines in figure 1 are such that all the axioms of the
three – point geometry hold, there is still the possibility that the geometry might have
additional lines not shown. This matter is settled by proving two theorems. First,
comparing the wording of axioms 2 and 4, we need to determine whether two distinct
lines might be on more than one point.

We need to prove that each two distinct lines are on at least one point. This
statement can be written in the form of a conditional statement: If two lines are distinct,
then they are on exactly one point.

Theorem: Each two distinct lines are on exactly one point.

Proof. By axiom 4, two distinct lines are on at least one point. Assume two lines lie on
more than one point. If lines l and m lie on the points P and Q, then Axiom 2 is

contradicted, since P and Q would be on two lines, l and m. ∎

Theorem: The three-point geometry has exactly three lines.

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Proof: From Axiom 2, each pair of points is on exactly one line. Each possible pair of
points is on a distinct line, so the geometry has at least three lines. Suppose there is a
fourth line. From Axiom 1, there are only three points in the geometry. This fourth line
must have a point in common with each of the other three lines, by Theorem 1.1, so that
it must also be on two of the three points, which contradicts Axiom 2. Therefore, there
can be no more than three lines in the geometry. ■

Properties of Axiomatic Systems

Sets of axioms for Euclidean geometry, as well as for any mathematical system,
should have properties. It is on this lesson that you learn about the properties of the
axiomatic system. It also helps you understand the use of models to verify whether the
axioms possess properties such as consistency, independence and completeness. As
you go through this lesson, you need to take note of the following question: What is a
consistent axiom, independent axiom, and complete axiom?

CONSISTENCY

Definition

An axiomatic system is said to be consistent if there do not exist in the system

any two axioms, any axiom and theorem, or any two theorems that contradict each
other.

Equivalently, an axiomatic system is inconsistent if it implies a contradiction, that

is, if it is possible to prove in it that some statement is both true and false.

Test for Consistency: If there exists a model for a set of axioms, the set of axioms is
consistent. To establish the absolute consistency of a set of axioms, you need to
produce a concrete model

Example 1: *See example set of axioms for committee. Since the model of the set of
axioms for Committee exists, then it is consistent. Furthermore, the interpretation used
in axiomatic system is adapted from real world such as names of people which serve as
model, then the set of axioms has an absolute consistency.

Your Turn: Determine whether the following axiomatic system is consistent or

inconsistent: (Any one of the axioms can be proven false using the other axioms.)
A1. There are exactly 2 boys.
A2. There are exactly 3 girls.
A3. Each boy likes exactly 2 girls.
A4. No two boys like the same girl.

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Your Turn: Axioms for Four-Point Geometry
Axiom 4P.l. There exist exactly four points.
Axiom 4P.2. Any two distinct points are on exactly one line.
Axiom 4P.3. Each line is on exactly two points.
Determine the undefined terms and tell whether the geometry is consistent or not. Draw
the model if possible.

INDEPENDENCE
Definition 1.2

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 An axiomatic system is said to be independent if it cannot be logically deduced
from the other axioms in the system. In other words, each axiom in the system is
independent to one another.

COMPLETENESS
Definition: An axiomatic system is said to be complete if it is impossible to add an
additional consistent and independent axiom without adding additional undefined terms.

FINITE GEOMETRIES OF FANO AND YOUNG

A finite geometry is a geometry based on a set of postulates, undefined terms,
and undefined relations which limits the set of all points and lines to a finite number.
A finite geometry is a geometry with a finite number of points. When confined to
a plane, all finite geometries are either projective plane geometries (with no parallel
lines) or affine plane geometries (with parallel lines).
NOTE: All the finite geometries of this discussion have point and line as undefined
terms, and on as the main relation. Remember that figures in geometry are sets, thus, in
a finite geometry each figure is a “finite” set. Your perception of a line must also be
changed.

THREE-POINT GEOMETRY
Undefined Terms. Point, line, on.
Axiom 1. There exist exactly three points.
Axiom 2. Two distinct points are on exactly one line.
Axiom 3. Not all points are on the same line.
Axiom 4. Two distinct lines are on at least one common point.
Let’s consider the following set of axioms for Three-Point Geometry. We will now
interpret the undefined terms such as point and line of this geometry to determine its
model.
Interpretation: In this geometry, point is interpreted as letter while line is interpreted as
pairs of letters
Point (p) = {A, B, C}
Line (L) = {{A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}}
Verification: Verify whether each axiom in the given set of axioms is satisfied. This
means that every axiom is true based from its interpretation. If all axioms in the set are
satisfiable, then the model for the set of axioms exist (see Figure 1).

FOUR-LINE GEOMETRY
Axiom 1: There exists exactly four lines.

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Axiom 2: Any two distinct lines intersect in one point.
Axiom 3: Each point is on exactly two lines.
4L Theorem 1: There exists exactly six points.
4L Theorem 2: Each line contains exactly three points.
Interpretation:
P = {A, B, C, D, E, F}
L = {{A, D, C}, {A, E, F}, {B, D, E}, {B, C, F}}

Theorem 1: There exists exactly six points.

Proof: There are exactly six points
Step 1: Name the lines. Let the four distinct lines be L1, L2, L3, L4.
Step 2: Use Axiom 2. Each pair of distinct lines intersects in exactly one point.
Since there are four lines, we can count the number of intersections between
distinct pairs of lines.
o The number of ways to choose two distinct lines from the four is calculated
using combinations:

( 42)= 42∙3 =6
This means there are 6 distinct pairs of lines, and by Axiom 2, each pair intersects in
exactly one point. Therefore, there are 6 distinct intersection points.
Step 3: Confirm the points. Each intersection point is distinct because no two
lines intersect at more than one point (from Axiom 2). Therefore, the six points
are distinct.
Step 4: Verify consistency with Axiom 3. Axiom 3 states that each point lies
on exactly two lines. Since each point is the intersection of two distinct lines, this
condition is satisfied.
Thus, the geometry consists of exactly six distinct points, as required.

Theorem 2: Each line contains exactly three points.

Proof:

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By axiom 2, each line of the geometry has a point in common with each of the other
three lines, and all three of these distinct points are on the given line. Suppose there
were a fourth point on one line. Then, by axiom 3, it must also be on one of the other
lines. But this is impossible because the other three line already determine exactly one
point with the given line, and by Axiom 2, they can only determine one point. Thus, each
line of the geometry has exactly three points on it.

FOUR-POINT GEOMETRY
Undefined Terms: Point, Line, On.
Axiom 1: There exist exactly four distinct points.
Axiom 2: Any two distinct points are on exactly one line.
Axiom 3: Each line is on exactly two points.
Interpretation: P = {A, B, C, D}
L = {{A, B}, {A, C}, {A, D}, {B, C}, {B,D}, {C, D}}

YOUR TURN!
Five-Point Geometry
Consider the following axioms:
Axiom 1: There exist exactly five points.
Axiom 2: Any two distinct points have exactly one line on both of them.
Axiom 3: Each line has exactly two points.

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Other Types of Finite Geometries
Fano’s Finite Geometry
Axiom 1: There exists at least one line.
Axiom 2: There exist exactly three points on every line.
Axiom 3: Not all points are on the same line.
Axiom 4: There exists exactly one line on any two distinct points.
Axiom 5: There exists at least one point on any two distinct lines.

Young’s Finite Geometry

Axiom 1: There exists at least one line.
Axiom 2: There exist exactly three points on every line.
Axiom 3: Not all points are on the same line.
Axiom 4: There exists exactly one line on any two distinct points.
Axiom 5: For each line ℓ and each point P not on ℓ, there exists exactly one line on P
that does not contain any points on ℓ.

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