General Terminologies

Nutrition – The process of taking in and using food

Nutrients – substances in food that are used as energy sources to run the system of the
body
Digestive system – the organs and glands in the body that are responsible for digestion
Digestion – the breakdown of food to smaller molecules

Two types of Digestive System

Incomplete Digestive System – common among invertebrates, there is only a single
opening for the ingestion of food (an anus is absent)
Complete Digestion System – common among nematodes, annelids, mollusks,
echinoderms, and vertebrates, this type has digestive tubes with two openings (a mouth
and an anus)

Nutritional Requirements
» Undernourishment: caloric deficiency
» Over nourishment (obesity): excessive food intake
» Malnourishment: essential nutrients deficiency
» Essential nutrients: materials that must be obtained in preassembled form
» Essential amino acids: the 8 amino acids that must be obtained in the diet
» Essential fatty acids: unsaturated fatty acids
» Vitamins: organic enzymes
» Minerals: inorganic cofactor

8 Essential Amino Acids for Adult Humans

» Tryptophan
» Methionine
» Valine
» Threonine
» Leucine
» Isoleucine
» lysine

What is Nutrition?
Nutrition is the science of dealing with the utilization of food by the body processes which
transforms food into the body tissues and energy.
A single class of food or group of like foods that aids in the support of life and makes it
possible for animals to grow or provide energy for physiological processes.
Digestible Nutrient
The portion of the nutrients which may be broken down (digested) and absorbed and
used by the body.

Utilizations
Nutrients are utilized by the animal for:
» Maintenance
» Growth
» Production
» Health control

Importance
» To obtain and utilize surplus or unusable food stuffs
» And convert them to desirable products such as meat, milk, eggs, fiber and work.

The six Nutrient Needed

Protein, Carbohydrates, Fats, Minerals, Vitamins, Water

Proteins
» Needed for growth and repair
» Helps form muscles, internal organs, skin, hair, wool, feathers, hoofs and horns

Examples of Proteins
» Meat and bone meal
» Fish meal
» Soybean meal
» Cottonseed meal
» Dried skim milk
» Amino acids

Carbohydrates
» Furnish energy for body functions, growth and reproduction
» The largest part of the animals food supply are usually the fibrous part of the diet
» Include sugars, starch and cellulose
» Are made of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen

Fats
» Furnish a concentrated source of energy, up to 2.25 times as much energy as
carbohydrates do
 » Form cholesterol, steroids and other body compounds
» Found in every cell in the body
» Affect the condition of skin and hair
» Are made of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, but contain much larger proportions of
carbon and hydrogen than carbohydrates
» They also provide energy reserves, protecting for vital organs, and they insulate
the body

Minerals
» Primarily found in bones and teeth
» Important in blood for the carrying of oxygen
» Regulates heartbeat with potassium, sodium and calcium

Major Minerals
» The major minerals are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and
potassium
» They are required at comparatively high levels described as percent of diet or
grams per day.

Minor Minerals
» They are required only in very small amounts
» Some minerals fed in excess amounts may cause a deficiency in others
» Iron, Zinc, copper, molybdenum, selenium, fluorine

Vitamins
» Are only needed in small amounts
» Are essential for life and health
» Provide a defense against disease, promote growth and reproduction
» Contribute to the general health of animal
» Vitamin A, B, C, D, E, etc.

Water
» Accounts for 70% or more of the composition of most plants and animals

How much do animals drink per day?

» Beef cattle: 7 – 12 gallons per head
» Dairy cattle: 10 – 16 gallons per head
» Horses: 8 – 12 gallons
» Swine: 3 – 5 gallons
» Sheep and goats: 1 – 4 gallons
» Chicken: 8 – 10 gallons per 100 birds
Food types/Feeding mechanism
» Opportunistic
 Herbivore: eat autotrophs
 Carnivore: eat other animals
 Omnivore: both
» Feeding adaptations
 Suspension feeders: sift food from water (baleen whale)
 Substrate feeders: live in or on their food (leaf miner) (earthworm: deposit
feeders)
 Fluid-feeders: suck fluids from a host (mosquito)
 Bulk-feeders: eat large pieces of food (most animals)

Herbivores
Herbivores can be further
classified into frugivores (fruit –
eaters), granivores (seed eaters),
nectivores (nectar feeders), and
folivores (leaf eaters)
Herbivores, like this (a) mule deer
and (b) monarch caterpillar, eat
primarily plant material: (credit a:
modification of work by Bill
Ebbesen: credit b: modification of
work by Doug Bowman)

Carnivores
Carnivores like the lion eat primarily meat. The
ladybug is also a carnivore that consumes small
insects called aphids.

Omnivores
Omnivores like the bear and crayfish eat both plant
and animal – based food.
Species – dependent Nutrition Adaptation
» Includes involvement of:
» Teeth and jaws and jaw musculature
» Alimentary canal
 Stomach – may be simple or become sacculated to compartmentalize
functions for prolonged storage of feed and utilization of bacterial
fermentation (langures and ruminants). May also become voluminous for
storage of large amount of feed (vampire bats)
 Large intestine – varies substantially in length, compartmentalization,
and complexity among species

Overview of Digestion of Process (Breakdown of food)

1. Ingestion – act of eating, food entry
2. Propulsion – swallowing of food and continues with peristalsis (ANS);
segmentation – successive local segmentations in the GI tract
3. Mechanical breakdown – teeth and saliva; stomach – HCl (Gastric juices)
4. Digestion – process of food breakdown
 Enzymatic hydrolysis
 Intracellular – breakdown within cells (sponges)
 Extracellular – breakdown outside cells (most animals) alimentary canals
(GI tract)
5. Absorption – cells take up small molecules (absorptive forms) through blood
6. Elimination/defecation – remova of undigested materials (action thru CNS)
Invertebrates mostly have incomplete digestion
Vertebrates have complete digestive system

Mammalian Digestion
» Peristalsis –
rhythmic waves of
contraction by smooth
muscle
» Sphincters – ring –
like valves that
regulates passage of
material
» Accessory
glands – salivary
glands: pancreas; liver; gall bladder
Parotid gland contributes to digestion through
secretion of saliva mainly the salivary amylase.
Salivary amylase digests carbohydrates. These
glands aids in the initial stages of digestion during the
mastication or chewing of the food. Saliva acts on the
chewed food and acts as a lubricant. Saliva contains
a starch digesting enzyme called thiamine – splits
polysaccharide into maltose. Dogs and cats do not
have amylase in their saliva

Oral Cavity
Where the Salivary amylase Bolus pass
through

Pharynx
» Epiglottis

Esophagus
Stomach
» gastric juice produced by gastric glands
» Pepsin / pepsinogen (HCI)
» Acid chime
» Pyloric sphincter composed of smooth
muscle cells. Prevents back flow of food
» Inner linings of stomach composed of stratified columnar epithelium
» Mucos cells produce mucos that acts as lubricants
» Chief cells produce pepsinogen later hydrolyzed with hydrochloric acid it will
become active enzymes will be called pepsin
» Parietal cells, where hydrochloric acid is produced
» If it acts in bolus, it will become acidic and the process will now called chyme
Mammalian Digestion
» Vili / microvilli
» Lacteal
(Lymphatic)
» Chylomicrons (fats
mixed with
cholesterol)
» Hepatic portal
vessels
Oral cavity there is initial
digestion of
carbohydrates through
thialine. The
polysaccharides in the
form of starch and
glycogen will be acted
upon your salivary
amylase or thialine ane
will now be into double
sugar which is maltose.
Stomach is where
proteins are digested.
Proteins are acted upon by the pepsin and it will be broken down into smaller
polypeptides.
Lumen (like-canal) in small intestine. The maltose digested in the oral cavity will be further
broken down into maltose and other disaccharide through the action of pancreatic
amylase produced in pancreas. If it is now in the form of maltose and disaccharide it will
now be further broken down into monosaccharide through the process of Disaccharidases
Epithelium of small intestine. Small intestine is innervated by the blood vessels wherein
those monosaccharide will enter absorbs by the cells from the epithelium going to the
blood vessels and enter the blood stream and so the blood will now transport the nutrients
into the body.
For protein digestion and the lumen of small intestine. From polypeptide will be acted
upon trypsin and thymotrypsin and will be broken down into smaller polypeptide through
the action of aminopeptidase and carboxypeptidase and will be further broken down into
the building blocks of proteins which are amino acids
For Nucleic acid
Alimentary Canal
» Also called digestive tract
» The mucous membrane-
lined tube of the digestive
system through which food
passes, in which digestion
takes place, and from
which wastes are
eliminated
» It extends from the mouth
to the anus and includes
the pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, and intestines
A) Gastro vascular cavity has a
single opening through which
food is ingested, and waste is
excreted, as shown in the
hydra and in this jellyfish
medusa.
B) An alimentary canal has two
opening: a mouth for ingesting
food, and an anus for
eliminating waste, as show in
this nematode.
Regions of Alimentary Canal
» Foregut functions
 Ingestion and storage of feeds
» Midgut functions
 Mechanical, chemical and enzymatic digestion of feed – nutrient
absorption
» Hindgut function
 Water and ion re-absorption – formation, storage, excretion of feces

Primary Functions of the Digestive Tract

» Transport food – peristaltic contractions
» Digestion – reduce feed particles to molecules that can be absorbed into the
blood – mechanical breakdown by chewing
- Chemical breakdown by HCI and digestion enzymes
» Absorption – allows nutrients to pass through membranes of GIT to the blood
stream – passive diffusion and active transport
» Synthesis – true protein, FA, Starch, Vitamins
» Excretion – eliminating of waste products
- Via bile (toxins, microbes, etc.) – via rectum (Ca, Mg, P)

Why do Animals Digest

 Food not ingested in suitable state
 Physical natire of food determines
» Gathering apparatus for uptake
» Type of digestive system required

Gastrointestinal Track (GIT)

 The major functions of the gastrointestinal tract are ingestion, digestion,
absorption, and defecation
 Primitive Gastrointestinal tract
» Found in the monotremes (egg – laying mammals), insectivores (bats,
shrews, moles) and dermopterans (colugos)
» Simple stomach, little or no division between small intestines and large
intestines, large intestine simple, presence of caecum, non – sacculated
colon
Mouth
 Functions
» Grasp food
» Taste
» Masticate food
» Mix with saliva

Digestion in the Mouth

 Prehension
» Bringing the food to the mouth
- Upper limbs, head, beaks, claws, mouth, teeth and lips
» Seizing and conveying feed to mouth
» Mechanisms vary with behavior and diet
» Forelimbs – Primates, raccoon
» Snout – Elephant, tapir
» Tongue – Anteater, cow, sheep
» Lips – Horse, sheep, rhinoceros
» Domestic mammals use lips, teeth and tongue
- Relative importance varies by species
 Horses – lips when eating from manger
Teeth when grazing
 Cows and sheep have limited use of lips
Use long rough tongue to grasp forage
 Pigs use snout to root in ground and pointed lower lip
to convey feed into mouth
 Birds use beak and tongue
- Drinking varies as well
 Most mammals use suction
 Dogs and cats use tongue to form ladle

 Mastication or chewing
» To crush the food, increase surface area and allow enzymes to act on
molecules
- Carnivores need only to reduce the size of the particle
- Herbivores must chew continuously (40 -50,000 times a day)
» Physical reduction of feed
» Especially important in non – ruminant herbovores
» Adaptations
- Carnivores – large canines and incisors, tearing but little to no
chewing activity
- Herbivores – specialized molars, lots of chewing and grinding
 - Edentates (sloth, armadillos, anteater) – relative roothlessness
 Teeth and Mastication
» Teeth are essential for proper chewing
- Distinguishing difference between carnivores and herbivores
- May regulate the amount of forage an herbivore is able to consume
-Problems with older animals

Utilizing cellulose
 Advantages
» Ultra – abundant in the environment
» Easily obtained – no need to hunt plants
» Plant cell walls and fiber high in energy
 Disadvantages
» Indigestible by mammalian digestive enzymes
» Cellulose is found only in bacteria and some protozoans

Evolutionary Adaptations
» Dentition: an animal’s assortment
of teeth
» Digestive system length
» Symbiosis
» Ruminants
Felids – Extreme
Carnivores
Carnassials and Claws
Teeth Specialization
 Carnivores
» Canine teeth highly developed and used for tearing
» Molars are pointed for bone crushing
  Omnivores
» Grinding teeth
patterns on
posterior teeth
(molars)
» Piercing and ripping
cusps on anterior
teeth (incisors)
» Tongue – used to
move feed to teeth

Teeth Specialization
 Non – ruminant herbivores (horse)
» Incisors for nipping, molars slightly angled, jaws move circularly (vertical
and lateral)
 Ruminants
» No upper incisors classes – roughage eaters, transition types, selective
eaters all differ in tongue mobility and cleft palate

Jaw Muscles and Mastication

 Temporalis muscle – develops maximum
force on anterior portion of jaw (largest
muscle in carnivores and smallest
muscle in herbivores)
 Masseter and medial pterogoid –
maximum force for crushing
 Lateral pterogoid – allows lateral
movement which is important for
grinding (highly important in herbivores,
but carnivores and many omnivores
have almost no lateral movement of
jaws.
Salivation
 Quantity and composition of saliva varies considerably between species
» Quantity related to level of chewing activity
 Amount of secretion
» Dogs – minimal (lubrication, no enzymes
» Sheep – 3 – 10 liters per day
» Horse – 10 – 12 liters per day
» Cattle – 130 – 180 liters per day

Foregut: Conduction and Storage of Food in Humans

Foregut in Birds

Stomach
Stomach Compartments
 Rumen – 80% of capacity
 Reticulum – 5% of capacity
 Omasum – 7% of capacity
 Abomasum – 8% of capacity

Mouth
 Contains dental pad, teeth,
tongue and saliva
 Saliva contains no salivary
amylase

Esophagus
 Serves as passageway from
mouth to stomach and from
stomach to mouth

Rumen
 Large fermentation vat that
houses microorganisms
Reticulum
 “Honeycomb”
 Houses
microorganisms
 Catches
hardware
(ingested by
animal)
 Houses the
opening to the
omasum

Omasum
 “Manyplies”
 Full of folded tissue
 Water absorption

Abomasum
 Trie stomach
 Pepsin HCI
Small intestine
 Enzymatic digestion
and absorption
 Functions of the small
intestine: digestion of
proteins,
carbohydrates, and
fats; absorption of the
end products of
digestion
» Duodenum
» Jejunum
» Ileum
 Cecum – some
microbial
fermentation
 Large intestine
» Water absorption
» Waste storage

Adaptations to Feed Sources

 Gastric capacity and structure
» Capacity is greatest in pregastric fermenters
- Stomach act as a reservoir
» Small stomach in carnivores is related to high nutrient density of the diet
» Distribution and composition of epithelial lining varies between species
and dietary adaptations
 Intestinal length and functions
» Small intestine – less among species than stomach and hind gut, but
generally shorter in carnivores than in herbivores
» Large intestine – importance of hind gut fermentation dictates variation in
structure and size
- Some hind gut fermentation occurs in most species
Digestive Tract

Digestive Enzymes
 Young animals produce little sucrose, maltase, amylase
 Ruminants produce no sucrose
 Adult pigs lack lactase
 Activity changes with age
» Lactase ↓
» Sucrase, maltase ↑
Foregut vs. Hindgut Fermentation
Foregut
 More
efficient per
unit volume
of food
 Slower
digestive
process
 Animal may
starve with a
full belly
 Size
restricted

Hindgut
 More
efficient
relative to
time
 Faster
turnover

Classification of Animals by Preferred Ingested Feed stuffs

Carnivores – consume animal products
» Dogs, cats
» Komodo dragon, tigers, eagles, sharks, polar bears

Herbivore – consume plant products

» Cattle, sheep, goats, horses
» Giant panda, gorilla, elephant, ostrich, green iguana, giraffe, American bison

Omnivore – plant and (or) animal products

» Pigs
» Opossum, raccoon, blue jays, black bear, human
Digestion of food begins in
the A) oral cavity. Food is
masticated by teeth and
moistened by saliva
secreted from the B) salivary
glands. Enzymes in the
saliva begins to digest
starches and fats. With the
help of the tongue, the
resulting bolus is moved into
the esophagus by
swallowing.
 Peristalsis
Adjacent segments of the alimantary canal
alternately contract and relax
 Food is moved distally along the tract
 Primarily propulsive: some mixing may
occur

Segmentation
Nonadjacent segments of the alimentary
canal organs contract and relax
 Food is moved forward, then
backward
 Primarily mixes food and breaks it
down mechanically: some
propulsion may occur
Digestion: Accessory Organs
Liver
The largest internal organ in humans and it
plays a very important role in the digestion of
fats and detoxifying blood

Pancreas
Another important gland that
secretes digestive

Gallbladder
Small organ that aids the
liver by sorting bile and
concentrating bile salts.
When chime containing fatty
acids enters the duodenum,
the bile is secreted from the
gallbladder into the
duodenum