Aerodynamics

Thin-shear layers

• Properties of external flows

• Consequences of thin-shear layer (boundary-layer)

approximations

• Effect on the outer flow

• Influence of pressure gradient. Flow separation

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow

u v
 0
x y
u u 1 p   u     u v  
u v   2        
x y  x x  x  y   y x  
v v 1 p    u v     v 
u v          2  
x y  y x   y x   y  y 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow
Constant viscosity, =constant

u v
 0
x y
u u 1 p   2u  2u 
u v     2  2 
x y  x  x y 
v v 1 p   2 v  2 v 
u v     2  2 
x y  y  x y 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow

Making the equations dimensionless

Reference values

Velocity Ue  u  U eu * , v  U e v*
Length L  x  Lx * , y  Ly *
Pressure U e2  p  U e2 p*

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow
u * v*
 * 0
x y
*

u * * u
*
p * 1   2u *  2u * 
u*
v  *  
x *
y * 
x Re   x *
 
2
 
 y * 
2

v *
v *
p *
1   2 *
v  2 * 
v 
u * *  v* *   *   
x y  
y Re   x* 2  y * 2  
Ue
U e L U e L U e L
Re 




U
O [ convection
diffusion ]
 2e
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
L
 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow
u
  (uni-dimensional shear-stress)
y

Air  1,8×10-5kgm-1s-1  1,1×10-5m2s-1

Water  1,0×10-3kgm-1s-1  1,0×10-6m2s-1

• Practical applications are usually flows at

high Reynolds numbers, Re  105

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow

• Effects of shear-stresses are restricted to

small regions that exhibit large velocity
variations in small distances

• Thin shear layers

- Thickness of the shear layer, d, is much
smaller than the reference length L, d/L ≪ 1

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow

Boundary-layer Wake

Jet Mixing layer

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Two-dimensional, Incompressible
Steady Flow
Thick shear layers (Bluff bodies)

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations

Prandtl simplifications (1904)

Analysis of the order of magnitude of the terms

included in the continuity and momentum
balance equations
Ue x
Starting hypothesis: Re 1. (d/L 1) Re 


Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations

Prandtl Simplifications (1904)

Order of magnitude of variable x, O[x], is given by

the upper limit of the x variation
 Known orders of magnitude
 O[x] → L
 O[y] → d
 O[u] → Ue

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations

Continuity equation

u v
 0
x y

U e O v 
 0
L d

U ed
O v  
L
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations

Bernoulli’s equation applied to the outer flow

(ideal fluid)
1
p U e2  const.
2
dpe dU e
 U e 0
dx dx
 1 dp  1 pe U e2
O    
  dx   L L

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Momentum balance in the x direction

u u 1 p   2u  2u 
u v     2  2 
x y  x  x y 
U e2 U e2 U e2 U U 
     2e  2e 
L L L L d 
U e2 U e2 U e2 U e2    L  
2

   1    
L L L L U e L   d  

1  L 
2

1  1  1  1    
Re   d  

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Momentum balance in the x direction

1   L 2 
Analysis of diffusion 1    
Re   d  
  2u  1
O  2   0
 x  Re
2
  2u  1  L  d 1
O  2
     1
 x  Re  d  L Re

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Momentum balance in the y direction

v v 1 p   2 v  2 v 
u v      2  2 
x y  y  x y 
U e2d U e2d O  1 p   U ed U e 
       3  
L 2
L 2
   y   L L d 
 1 p   U e2d U e2d  L  
2
U d U d
2 2
 e
2
 e
2
O   y   U L  L2  L2  d  
L L   e    

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Momentum balance in the y direction
2
L
Using    Re we obtain
d 
L2  1 p  1
11  2 O   y   R  1
Ue d   e

 1 p  U e2d
O   y   L2
 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Momentum balance in the y direction

Across the boundary-layer

2
 d p   d  1 1
O  0 y      U e2
2 2
dy   U e U e
  L Re 2

Therefore,

p
0
y

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
u v
 0
x y
u u 1 dp   2u 
u v    2 
x y  dx  y 

• The selected coordinate system must respect the

following conditions:
1. The x coordinate must be aligned with the
outer flow
2. The y coordinate is normal to the surface

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
u v
 0
x y
u u 1 dp   2u 
u v    2 
x y  dx  y 

• Static pressure is independent of the coordinate y.

Pressure change with x (dp/dx) may be obtained
from the outer flow, p(x) pe(x). Therefore, the
pressure does not belong to the unknowns.
The pressure is part of the input
of a boundary-layer problem
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
u v
 0
x y
u u 1 dp   2u 
u v    2 
x y  dx  y 

• The equations are no longer elliptic in the x

direction. For a given value of x, the solution depends
only on the upstream conditions. Therefore, it is
possible to solve the problem using a marching
procedure in the x direction (initial value problem).

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Simplified Forms of the Navier-Stokes Equations

• Boundary layer, thin shear layer equations

― Pressure determined by the outer flow,

p
0
y
― Diffusion in the main direction of the flow
neglected,
  2u 
  2   0
 x 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Simplified Forms of the Navier-Stokes Equations

• Parabolized Navier-Stokes equations

― Pressure derivative in the main direction of the

flow determined by the outer flow,
p pe

x x
― Diffusion in the main direction of the flow
neglected,
  2u 
  2   0
 x 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Simplified Forms of the Navier-Stokes Equations

• Reduced Navier-Stokes equations

― Diffusion in the main direction of the flow

neglected,
  2u 
  2   0
 x 
― Pressure determination makes the problem
elliptic

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• Integrate boundary-layer equations in the direction

normal to the wall up to the outer flow h  d 

• Continuity equation
h  u v 
0  x  y dy  0
h u
v   dy
0 x

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• Outer flow (ideal fluid)

1
p  U e2  const.
2
1 dp dU e
 U e
 dx dx

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• Momentum equation in the x direction

h  u u 1 dp  h  u
2

0  u x  v y   dx dy  0  y 2 dy

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

― Diffusion

h 2u h 1 
0  y 2 dy  0  y dy
h
h 1    
0  y
dy     w
  0 
 w  Shear-stress at the wall
 For h>d, ≃0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

h  u  y u  u dU e  w
0  x 0 x

u  

dy 
 y
 U e
dx 

dy  

(2)

― Integration by parts

h  y u  u 
0  0 x dy  y  dy
  
f ( y ) g ' ( y )dy   f ( y ) g ( y )   f ' ( y ) g ( y )dy
h h

h
0 0 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

 h u
 f ( y )  0 x dy

 g ' ( y )  u
 y
h
h  u  u 
y  u  
y h  u 
 0  0 x dy  y  dy   0 x dy u   0  x u dy
     0  
h  y u  u  h u h  u 
 0  0 x dy  y  dy  0 U e x dy  0  u x dy
    

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

― Using the equality

u 2 u
 2u
x x
and applying it in (2)
h  u dU e u 2  w
0  e x e dx x  
 U  U   dy  (3)

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

 uU e  u dU e
 Ue u
x x dx
h   uU e  dU e dU e u 2  
0  x
u
dx
Ue
dx
 dy  w
x  
  w
h

0  x e
uU  u 2
 
dU e
dx
U e  u  
 dy 



Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• The integration limit h does not depen on x.

Therefore, the derivatives with respect to x may
permute with the integration in y
d  h  dU e h w
   
dx  0  dx 0 e
u U  u dy  U  u dy 
e

• Making u dimensionless using Ue
d  2 h u  u   dU e h u  w
dx  0 U e  U e   dx
e 
U
 e  1   dy   U  1  
 dy 
0
 U e  

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Displacement thickness, d*

h u 
d   1  dy
*
0
 Ue 
• For h≥d, u/Ue≃1, consequently

d  u 
d   1 
*
dy
0
 Ue 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Displacement thickness, d*

• Mass flow rate in section d×1 for ideal fluid conditions

d
Qideal    U e dy

0

• Real mass flow rate in section d×1

d
Qreal    udy

0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Displacement thickness, d*

• The displacement thickness is related to the flow rate

deficit imposed by the presence of the boundary-layer
d d
U e d  Qideal  Qreal    U e dy   udy
*  
0 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Displacement thickness, d*

d  u 
d   1 
*
dy
0
 Ue 

• d* is equivalent to the displacement of the

streamlines of the outer flow due to the effect of
the boundary-layer.

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Displacement thickness, d*
y
• Using   we obtain
d
d* 1 u 
  1  d
d 0
 Ue 
which is exclusively defined by the dimensionless
velocity profile
u  y
 f 
Ue d 
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Momentum thickness, 

h u  u 
  1  dy
0 U  Ue 
e 

• For h≥d, u/Ue≃1, accordingly

d u  u 
  1  dy
0 Ue  Ue 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Momentum thickness, 

• Momentum flow rate in section d×1 for the real mass flow
rate at the velocity of an ideal fluid
d

M
ideal

real e 
 Q U   uU dy
0
e

• Real momentum flow rate in section d×1

(obviously for the real mass flow rate)
d 2
M real    u dy

0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Momentum thickness, 

• The momentum thickness is related to the reduction of

the momentum flow rate (forces) due to the presence
of the boundary-layer.  must be determined for the
mass flow rate that crosses the section d×1, taking
into account d*
d d 2
U   M ideal  M real    uU e dy    u dy
2
e
 
0 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Momentum thickness, 

d u  u 
  1  dy
0 Ue  Ue 

• Since  is related to a deficit of momentum its change

must be related to the forces acting on the fluid

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Momentum thickness, 

y
• Using   we obtain
d
 1 u  u 
 1  d
d 0U
e  Ue 

which is exclusively defined by the dimensionless

velocity profile
u  y
 f 
Ue d 
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters

Shape Factor, H

d*
d* d u  y
H  depends only on  f  
  Ue d 
d
• H quantifies the shape of the velocity profile. Since
the integrand of the  definition is always smaller
than that of d*, H≥1, with a limit of 1 for a uniform
profile.
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Integral parameters
d*
Shape Factor, H 


• Skin friction coefficient, Cf

w
Cf 
1 U e2
2
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• Using the integral parameters in the integrated

equation leads to
dU e  w
d
dx
 
U e2  U ed *
dx



d H  2 dU e C f
 
dx U e dx 2

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Self-similar laminar flows

• General case
u
 F  x, y 
Ue
• Self-similar flows
u y x
 F   with   and O d  
Ue Od  Ue

u  x, y   U e x F  
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Self-similar laminar flows

• In such conditions, the shape factor H is constant

d*
d * O d 
H 
 
O d 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Self-similar laminar flows

• Outer velocity given by the following equation

U e  Cx m
• Ideal flow solution for the flow at a corner of angle pb

2m b
b m
m 1 2b

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Self-similar laminar flows

U e  Cx m

• m=0→ Zero pressure gradient flow

• m=1→ Stagnation point flow

• m=-0.0904→ Velocity profile with w=0

2m b
b m
m 1 2b

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Self-similar laminar flows

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• Zero pressure gradient

d C f

dx 2
• Dimensionless velocity profile is sufficient to obtain
the solution
u  y
 f 
Ue d 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• 2 unknowns,  and Cf, for 1 equation d  f

C
dx 2
 1 u  u 
 
 1  d
d 0 Ue  Ue 
2   u Ue 
Cf   
U ed   y d  y d 0
dd  d  2   u U e 
d      constant.
dx    U e   y d  y d 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

dd  d  2   u U e 
d       constant.
dx    U e   y d  y d 0
d x d  2   u U e 
0 ddd  0     
 U e   y d  y d 0
dx

d2 d  2x   u U e 
   
2   U e   y d  y d 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

d  x   u U e 
d  4
2
  
  U e   y d  y d 0
2
d   d     u Ue 
   4   
x    U e x   y d  y d 0

d   d   u U e 
   4   Rex0.5
x     y d  y d 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation

• Boundary-layer parameters
u y
u  f   u , 
com Ue d
d  d  1  u d ,   d  u 1  u d
1 1
*
0 0

d* U x U L
H  , Re  e , Re  e
  x
 L

Cf 
w
, CD 
0
 w dx
1 2 U e
2
1 2 U e2 L

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
von Kármán Integral Equation
dp
Approximate and exact solutions for 0
dx
f   d x Re d * x Re  x Re
x x x
H C f Rex C D Rex

 3,464 1,732 0,578 3,00 0,578 1,16

3 2  1 2 3 4,64 1,74 0,646 2,70 0,646 1,29

2  2 3   4 5,84 1,752 0,687 2,55 0,687 1,37

p  4,791 1,741 0,655 2,66 0,655 1,31
sin   
2 
exact ―(5) 1,721 0,664 2,59 0,664 1,33
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Shape of the velocity profile

u 1 p u 1 dp
  
s u s x u dx
• Aplication of Bernoulli’s equation along a streamline
in the interior of the boundary-layer neglecting friction
dp
• Pressure gradient effect increases with the decrease
of u dx

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Shape of the velocity profile

1 dp  2u
 2
 dx y

 2u u y d 2 dU e
 with u  ,  and   
 2
Ue d  dx
• Second derivative at the wall is defined by the
pressure gradient

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Shape of the velocity profile

 2u
 0u 0 
 2

u  2u
 1 u 1 0 0
  2


3 4

6

u  2  2      3 2  3 3   4 

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Shape of the velocity profile

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

u 0.5
=-12
0.4
=-6
0.3 =0
=12 →w=0)
0.2 =24
0.1

0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1


Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Shape of the velocity profile

dp d* 
H C f (1)
dx d d
Adverse 0

Favourable 0

(1) Cf is equal to zero at a separation point

Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• In zero pressure gradient, momentum diffusion is

responsible for the growth of the boundary-layer
• Continuity equation
u v y u
  0  v    dy
x y 0 x
• Outer flow
dU e 1 dp
 
dx U e dx

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Effect of convection on the growth rate (d)

dp
v d
dx

Adverse 0

Favourable 0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Pressure gradient effect

• Combined effects

dp
d d*  H C f (1)
dx
Adverse 0

Favourable 0

(1) Cf is equal to zero at a separation point

Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

- von Kármán’s integral equations

d H  2 dU e C f
 
dx U e dx 2
- Wall boundary conditions
 u  Ue   2u  U
   l  2    2e 
 y  y 0   y  y 0 
Reference length → 
Reference velocity → Ue
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

- Pressure gradient parameter, 

 2 dU e

 dx
- Parameter related to the shear-stress at the wall, l

U eC f
l
2

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

- Thwaites hypothesis

l  l   H  H  

- Using it in von Kármán’s integral equation

U e d 2
 2  H    2  l    F  
 dx

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

- Fit to experimental data

F    0,45  6
Masters of Mechanical Engineering
 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

d 2U e6
 0,45U e5
dx
- Integrating

 U  0,45  U e5 dx   2U e6 0
x
2 6
e
0

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

1. Calculate 

 U  0,45  U e5 dx   2U e6 0
x
2 6
e
0

2. Calculate 

 2 dU e

 dx

Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

3. Calculate H and l from

 0,018
0,22  1,402   0,09    0
l 0,107  
0,22  1,57  1,82 0    0,25

 0,0731
 2,088   0,09    0
H  0,14  
2,61  3,75  5,242 0    0,25


Masters of Mechanical Engineering

 Aerodynamics

Boundary-Layer Approximations
Thwaites’s method

4. Calculate d* and Cf from H and l

Flow Separation   w  0, C f  0, l  0

l  0    0,09

Masters of Mechanical Engineering