RESEARCH METHODS HANDOUT (OTM 324) 2UNITS

YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT AND BUSINESS STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF OFFICE TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

RESEARCH METHODS HANDOUT (OTM 324)

HND 1 (SECOND SEMESTER)
COURSE OUTLINES

Introduction to Research
Definitions of Research According Authors & Roles of Research
Introduction to Research Problem
Definition of a Problem & Sources of Research Problem
Criteria for Problem Statement
Types of Research
Research Variable (Definition & Types of Variables)
Difference Between Limitation and Delimitation
Definition of Research Questions
Definition & Types of Hypotheses
Characteristics of Good Research Questions and Hypotheses
Literature Review (Definition, Purposes & Sources of Literature Review)
Difference Between Population and Sample
Sampling Techniques
Instruments for Data Collection (Types of Instruments for Data Collection)
Questionnaire (Definition, Types and Characteristics of Questionnaire)
Interview (Definition, Types, Advantages & Disadvantages of Interview)
Procedures for Constructing Interview
Observation (Definition, Types, Advantages & Disadvantages of
Observation)
Procedures of Conducting Observation
Test (Definition, Advantages & Disadvantages of Test)
Research Proposal (Definition & Parts of a Research Proposal)
Research Report (Definition and Parts of a Research Report)
Definition of References and Bibliography
Examples of cited authors
APA style of referencing

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INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

The level of development of a nation is greatly dependent on the level of research,

which the country is able to do in order to discover various means of making life
worth living for her citizens. Before now, research was limited to science alone, but
since the advent of industrial revolution, the importance of research has spread to
all professions. The application of scientific research methods in management and
other business areas is now widely accepted. It is therefore, imperative to
understand the meaning and importance of research.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH ACCORDING TO AUTHORS

The term research is coined from the French word, recherche, which means to
investigate properly. Research has been defined by various scholars but a common
feature in the definitions is the investigation, enquiry and discovering of facts for
solving identified problems. Let us discuss some definitions given by renowned
authors.

Bako (2005) defined research as a systematic attempt, the investigation or

thorough search to find solution to problematic questions in an attempt to increase
the totality of knowledge.

Odia and Omofonmwan (2013) defined research as the careful investigation of a

thing or situation in order to effect development.

Similarly, Adeosun and Bragiwa (2017) defined research as a purposeful and

organized investigation to solve problems, and add to existing knowledge.

Research can also be defined as the process of arriving at dependable solution to

problems through the planned and systematic collection of data, analysis and
interpretation of data collected for promoting progress and enabling man to relate
more effectively to his environment in order for him to accomplish his purpose and
resolve his conflicts.

Thus, research is a deliberate and systematic investigation that is directed towards

discovering unknown phenomena.

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ROLES OF RESEARCH

1. Research aids the development of knowledge. It unveils or unravels the

unknown phenomena to be studied in order to advance knowledge.

2. Research activities have tremendously enhanced the quality of life in terms

of the provision of goods and services that have made life worthwhile.

3. Research helps in assessing the validity of claims or theories made by others

about practices in order to remain current.

4. Research trains the individual on how to identify problems and the steps to
use in solving such problems.

5. The techniques learnt in research can be used for planning, forecasting,

analyzing and decision making, thus, increasing efficiency and effectiveness
in management.

6. Research is motivational, as it leads to new discovery. It gives personal

satisfaction and excitement to the researcher.

7. Research leads to innovation and increased opportunity for mankind.

8. Research helps to increase the ability to think conceptually and analytically.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Every scientific research starts with the identification or establishment of a

problem. The problem is either stated in question/interrogative or declarative form
to indicate the relationship or difference between two or more variables. Student
researchers normally find it difficult to identify research problems in such a way
that they are neither too broad nor too narrow in scope. There are two basic
procedures for problem identification namely, identification of broad problem area
and pinning down the problem to a manageable form.

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DEFINITION OF A PROBLEM

A problem can be referred to as an unanswered question. Questions which require

answers are problems. Examples of such questions are;
a. What is the attitude of OTM students towards shorthand?
b. What learning facilities enhance the teaching of Microsoft office packages?

A problem can be defined as an unsatisfactory state of affairs or an unmet need

that demands a solution. Examples of such unsatisfactory state of affairs include:
a. Growing tendency of examination malpractice.
b. Mismatch between the skills of university graduates and the labor market
requirements.

A research problem can also take the form of a missing link or gap to be filled.
Examples are:
a. Inadequate provision of facilities for training the handicapped persons in
normal school system
b. Lack of guidance and counseling in career choice.

A research problem can also be defined as an imbalance. Examples include:

a. Increase in admission of students into science based courses without
corresponding increase in provision of facilities.
b. Theoretical approach to teaching of entrepreneurship in Nigerian Tertiary
Institutions.

Sources of research problem

 Literatures e.g. Books, Journals etc.

 Existing theories
 Personal experience
 Consultation with lecturers (supervisor)
 Classroom lectures and discussion with colleagues
 Technological changes and curriculum innovation
 Observation of the environment
 Past research reports
 Expert opinions
 Government publications
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CRITERIA FOR PROBLEM STATEMENT

The problem to be selected for study must conform with certain qualities or
criteria, which include:

1. INTEREST: A good research problem should be one which the researcher is

interested and competent at investigating. The topic must be in an area of
interest and competence of the researcher to enable him/her finish in
reasonable time. The process of research is rigorous and time consuming.
When frustration sets in, interest provides motivation, which sustains the
researcher against abandoning the work.

2. IT SHOULD BE RESEARCHABLE: The problem should be researchable or

viable. It should contain two or more variables to establish cause and effect
relationship. There should also be access to the required population and
sample. The researcher should be able to collect data.

3. PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL VALUE: A good research problem

should add practical and theoretical value. This means, the problem should
be one whose solution can add useful contribution to theory and practice such
a problem should therefore fill a gap in relevant literature.

4. IT SHOULD BE UNIQUE: A problem to be selected for study should be

unique, novel new & original. A problem is novel or new if there is no known
solution to it as at the time of the investigation to avoid waste of time and
resources. Being novel may not necessarily mean outright newness, it also
means verifying findings, questioning the generalizability, clarifying doubtful
points of filling a gap in an original study.

5. SUFFICIENT IN SCOPE: A good research problem should be sufficient in

scope with enough variables for study. It should not be too narrow or broad. It
should be clear and unambiguous.

6. IT SHOULD BE ACCOMPLISHED WITHIN AVAILABLE RESOURCES: A

good research problem should be accomplished within the available
resources of the researcher. The researcher should be able to complete the
work within the specified time and resources. Some researchers have been
abandoned half-way because of time and finance.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are different types of research, which are classified into basic groups
namely, purpose based and method-based classifications. When research is
classified by purpose, it falls into five categories namely:

a. Basic/pure/fundamental research
b. Applied or field research
c. Action research
d. Research and development
e. Evaluation research.
f. Historical research
g. Survey research
h. Case study
i. Causal comparative or expost-facto research
j. Experimental research

RESEARCH VARIABLE

A variable is anything that can change in value or assume different form at

different times.

Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the researcher manipulates,

control or observed to obtain data.

A variable is defined by Anderson (1990), as a characteristic that can assume

anyone of a range of values. It can also be defined as a quality or characteristic
that can change and take up different values.

Variables are named according to the nature of their measurement and functions.
Examples of variables are gender, age, class of degree et cetera.

There are basically two major types of variables, namely;

i. Independent variable
ii. Dependent variable

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Other types of variables are;

a. Control variables
b. Intervening variable
c. Extraneous variable
d. Moderator variable
e. Discrete variable
f. Dichotomous variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: An independent variable is the variable the

researcher manipulates or controls in order to ascertain its relationship with
another variable. It is the variable that elicit change in other variables. They are
the variables the researcher wishes to predict from. It is the antecedent variable,
predictor variable because it is responsible for the status of the other variable. For
example, a researcher may want to consider the topic influence of students’
industrial work experience scheme on academic performance of OTM students in
polytechnics in Lagos State. variation in level of academic performance results
from variation in SIWES. SIWES is the independent variable, this means the
experiences acquired during SIWES determines the academic performance of the
students.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Dependent variables are the variables that change as a

result of the manipulation of other variables. This is the variable whose value
change in response to the independent variable. It is the criterion variable. For
example, in a study titled influence of students’ industrial work experience scheme
on academic performance of OTM students’ in polytechnics in Lagos State.
Academic performance is the dependent variable that depends on SIWES. It is
important to note that variables are subject to change. What makes an independent
variable can become a dependent variable in another instance.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study is otherwise known as the importance, rationale and
justification. It is the benefits or usefulness of the findings of the study. It provides
justification for undertaking a particular study. It emphasizes the practical gain or
benefit. In order to provide a good rationale for a study, the researcher has to think

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of the usefulness to the researcher, future researchers, organizations, curriculum

planners, policy makers, the government and the society at large. For example, the
significances of carrying out a study on the topic influence of students’ industrial
work experience scheme on academic performance of OTM students in
polytechnics in Lagos State could be that the findings of the study will be of benefit
to the students as they will acquire computer skills that will improve their
keyboarding, shorthand transcription, ICT courses respectively. The findings may
also be beneficial to the society as qualified graduates will be available for
employment in the labour market. Again, the findings will be of benefit to
institutions as the collaboration between institutions and organizations through
SIWES will bridge the gap in the inadequate provision of teaching equipment in
institutions.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIMITATION AND DELIMITATION

LIMITATION: This is the difficulty and hindrances encountered by researchers.

Limitation refers to the constraints or setbacks encountered. These include wrong
methodology, lack of relevant materials, expert to consult, unfriendly attitude of
respondents, time factor, financial difficulty among others.

DELIMITATION: Delimitation is also known as the scope of the study. The scope
or delimitation covers two areas, namely, the aspect of the topic covered and the
respondents to be reached. It provides the researcher the opportunity to explain the
boundaries of the study and describe the aspect of a general or wide problem area
covered, as well as what aspects will be covered. The scope should neither be too
narrow nor too broad. The scope covers the content area, variables, sample,
location, and the subjects.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Research questions are the questions the research asks to guide the study. They
are the questions a researcher poses in order to obtain answers, which will enable
him/her solve the problem under investigation. Students normally find it difficult to
formulate research questions and hypotheses to guide their study. This sub-section
is designed to enable students acquire knowledge on how to generate questions.

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They are used by researchers in breaking down a problem into its specific parts.
They convert the problem into questions in such a way that they are verifiable.

Let us consider this topic influence of students’ industrial work experience scheme
on academic performance of OTM students in polytechnics in Lagos State

The following research questions could be formulated to guide the study.

1. What is the relationship between the skills acquired during SIWES and
academic performance of OTM students in polytechnics in Lagos State?

2. What is the relationship between the challenges faced during SIWES and
academic performance of OTM students in polytechnics in Lagos State?

3. What is the relationship between SIWES supervision and academic

performance of OTM students in polytechnics in Lagos State?

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is an intelligent guess about the solution to a problem under

investigation. It is an answer which has no evidence supporting it until a full
investigation is carried out. It means a tentative answer to a problem.

Hypothesis may therefore, be seen as an opinion statement. It is a proposition

whose validity is to be established. The statement, after collecting, analyzing and
interpreting the data may be accepted or rejected. Hypotheses are always stated in
declarative form and they are normally subjected to statistical test.

It has been discovered that the use of hypotheses is very fundamental to successful
research activity especially in studies that seek to establish cause and effect
relationship. However, studies which do not seek to establish relationship but
merely seek factual information, even though they may require data collection may
not necessarily require hypotheses. It should therefore be noted that the nature of a
problem determines whether or not hypotheses are needed.

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TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

There are basically two types of hypotheses, namely, null and alternative
hypotheses.

1. NULL HYPOTHESES: a null hypothesis is a hypothesis, which states that

“no difference or no relationship exists between two or more variables. It states
that no significant relationship or difference exists between the variables of
interest. Null hypotheses are always stated in negative form. It is central in
research, the hypothesis that is tested. This is the statistical hypothesis, that is
formulated which is either accepted or rejected. Null hypothesis is represented by
the sign H0.

Let us consider the topic earlier stated under research questions and convert the
questions to hypotheses.
1. There is no significant relationship between the skills acquired during
SIWES and academic performance of OTM students in polytechnics in
Lagos State?
2. There is no significant relationship between the challenges faced during
SIWES and academic performance of OTM students in polytechnics in
Lagos State?
3. There is no significant relationship between SIWES supervision and
academic performance of OTM students in polytechnics in Lagos State?

2. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES: An alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis

which indicates that there is a relationship or a difference between two or more
variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

1. The questions and hypotheses must be related to the problem and purpose of
the study.
2. They should be comprehensive enough to exhaust the problem.
3. They should be formulated in clear and unambiguous terms.
4. They should not be too many or too few. They should cover all pertinent issues
relating to the research problem.
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5. They should be answerable and testable.

6. They should be formulated in such a way that empirical evidence supporting
their validity can be obtained.
7. They must indicate relationship between two or more variables that are
measurable.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING: Hypothesis testing refers to the process of using various

statistical tools to analyze data to determine if a difference or relationship exists
between or among the variables of the study. Hypothesis testing determines if a
null hypothesis is to be accepted or rejected. If the null hypothesis is true you
accept or retain it but if the null hypothesis is false, you reject it.

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE AND DECISION RULE: In statistical research the

level of significance is represented by a Greek Sign called alpha ( ) put at 0.05,
0.01. if the level of significance is at 0.05, that means, there is about 5 changes of
error. There are two types of error in research namely, type I and type II errors.
Type 1 error is committed when a true hypothesis is rejected while type II error
occurs when a false hypothesis is accepted or retained.

Type 1 error: Rejecting hypothesis, that is true.

Type 11 error: Accepting hypotheses that is false.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review is an attempt by a researcher to put together a network of

information related to the problem situation that will enable a researcher to
understand the problem in clearer terms.

It refers to a summary of the writing of recognized authorities and of previous

research findings, which are related to the research problem that one intends to
investigate. It comes up in chapter two of most scientific research work.

The review of related literature should be organized to indicate the sub-headings to

be covered. Literature review proffer answers to the following questions:

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- what has been investigated?

- what research methods were used in the previous study?
- what was discovered in previous studies?
- what were the suggested areas for further studies?
- what are the gaps to be field?

If these questions are properly answered, the researcher will be able to identify a
good problem, formulate research questions/hypotheses, employ good statistical
tool and draw conclusion.

PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature serves the following purposes in scientific research.

1. SELECTION OF RESEARCH TOPIC: Literature review enables the researcher

to select good research topic and state it well.

2. CLEARER PROBLEM UNDERSTANDING: The major purpose of literature

review in a research process is to gain clearer understanding of the problem
under investigation. To be able to gain this higher level of clear understanding,
the review must cover the general and specific areas surrounding the problem.
The exercise should be carried out in such a way that the broad problem
identified is narrowed down to specific measurable form that no ambiguity is
found within its shores. In-depth review of literature helps the researcher to
become familiar with other researchers have done, how they did it, and the
approaches used. This gives the researcher better understanding of the
problem.

3. IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH GAPS: A proper literature review will

enable the researcher to understand the state of the art, find out what has been
done, and what areas remain to be filled. A researcher who has not carried out
literature review may be deceived to believe that there is very little that has
done in the area under investigation. No matter how expansive a study may be,
there are bound to be untapped areas. Literature review exposes gaps or
missing links.

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4. INSIGHT ABOUT METHODS AND DESIGNS: The literature reviewed can

provide invaluable information about methods, measures, subjects, sampling
and approaches used by other researchers. This can be used to improve on the
methods and designs of the present study. The validity of a study may be
weakened if the methodology is questionable.

5. SKILL OF DISCERNMENT IS SHARPENED: The task of literature review

involves assembling mass information from books, journals, internet etc. the
information gathered can be overwhelming. Therefore, the ability to sieve the
relevant from the shaft is not a mean task. Therefore, literature review helps the
researcher to develop the skill of discerning what is relevant for inclusion and
what is to be discarded.

6. RE-STATE RESEARCH QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESES: Well carried out

literature review leads to statement of good research questions/hypotheses. The
researcher will get familiar with how to formulate question and convert them to
testable hypotheses after thorough literature review.

7. ESTABLISHMENT OF CURRENT OPINION: Literature review should not

centre on textbooks, journals only, other media used by the community, namely,
newspapers, magazines, newsletters, internet, which carry current opinions
should be reviewed as well. The articles in this media often carry up-to-date
information.

8. LITERATURE REVIEW PROVIDES THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING:

Theories used by other previous researchers can be adopted in current studies.

9. SKILLS OF CRITICISM: Literature review gives the researcher the opportunity

to criticize past works, so that the weaknesses and mistakes of other researchers
can be avoided or improved upon.

[Link] DUPLICATION OF WHAT HAS BEEN DONE: If someone,

somewhere, sometime ago, had solved the problem the researcher intends to
solve, there would be no need as this will amount to waste of time and effort.

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SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

There are two basic sources of literature, namely, print and electronic sources.

PRINT SOURCES: This include catalogue, author title catalogue, subject title
catalogue, abstract, indexes, bibliography, serials, documents, among others.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES: This include CD-ROM, internet, e-mail, Micro fiche,

Micro film and so on.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Ordinarily, the word population refers to a large number of people living in a

geographical area like a village, town, city, state and nation. Population to the
layman is census, which is the number of people in a geographical area. In
research and statistics, the term population is used in a more specialized sense to
include not just people but also items, events, animals, objects, who or which are
members of the target of the study.

A population is the target group which a researcher is interested in studying and

about which he/she intends to obtain information from and draw conclusion.

A population in research is the target group, which a researcher is interested in

studying, and about which he intends to obtain information and draw conclusion
(Adedeji, 2017).

According to Ajala (2009), population is the designated part of a universe from

which the subjects for a study is selected. Population as any group of people or
objects which are similar in one or more ways and which form the subject of study
in a particular research. The members of the group of which a population is
composed must have some specific characteristics in common. A population may
therefore be defined as the sum total of all the cases that comply with some
designated set of specifications. For example, first year undergraduate students
studying in UNIBEN.

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In research, a population may be finite or infinite. A finite population consists of

elements or items which can be counted and a finite number obtained from the
counting. In this regard, first year undergraduate students in UNIBEN is an
example of finite population. An infinite population on the other hand consists of a
limitless number of elements. For example, a collection of all positive and negative
numbers constitutes an example of infinite population. Infinite means something
that cannot be counted.

In conducting research, the researcher may decide to study the entire population or
study only a certain portion of the population. That certain portion of the
population is known as Sample. It is desirable to study certain portion of a
population when:

i. the population of the study is very high.

ii. the time available for the study is very limited.
iii. the researcher has inadequate human and material resources for the study.

SAMPLE

A sample is the number of elements, items, objects and respondents taken from a
population for the purpose of detailed study. A sample is the subset of a
population.

Adedeji (2017) defined a sample as a sub-group or subset of a population or

universe. The members selected to represent the population is referred to as the
sample (Omorogiuwa, 2019). It is simply the process by which a portion of a
population is carefully selected and taken as representative of the population. The
selection of the portion must, however, be done in a deliberate fashion so that the
portion selected can be taken to represent the group of all the possible
participants. One would argue that a lot of information may be lost by studying only
a sample of the population. If the sample is carefully selected, it would serve as
representative of the entire population. To this end, various techniques are
available for selecting the sample of the study. It is often said that a sample of 30
subjects and above is large enough and less than 30 is too small. The method used
for selecting a portion of the population is called sampling.

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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

There are two major types of sampling techniques, namely, probability and non-
probability sampling technique.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

This is a technique in which the sampling units are selected according to some
non-laws of chance, that is, every member has a known equal chance of being
included in the sample. It refers to the likelihood or chance of including each
member of the population in the sample. The sample selected is considered
representative of the entire population. For an illustration, suppose, a researcher
has a population pf 16 schools the sampling frame of each has been number 1-16.
If the researcher is to select one of the sixteen schools, the probability of selecting
any of the school is 0.6, that is +6. Probability sampling is commonly used in
survey research.

There are four types of probability sampling techniques. These are:

a. Simple Random Sampling Techniques
b. Systematic Sampling Techniques
c. Stratified Sampling Techniques
d. Cluster Sampling Techniques

A. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: This is a technique in

which each element or person in the total population or universe has equal chance
of being included in the sample. Suppose the population from which a simple
random sample is to be drawn has 250 respondents. The probability is 1/250. To
draw sample, the researcher needs to obtain a sampling frame, that is, a list of the
population, by serial numbering. The researcher can draw a simple random sample
using any of the following:
i. the lottery method
ii. table of random number

The lottery method involves drawing the sample from a receptacle or a hat. The
serial numbers of the respondents are recorded on pieces of paper which are
folded. They are placed on the receptacle or hat and mixed thoroughly. The

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respondents are meant to pick the folded papers and the numbers written there on
are recorded. The recorded papers are thrown into the hat. The exercise is repeated
over and over again, this is called sampling with replacement but if not returned
into the hat, it is called sampling without replacement. The mixing and drawing of
the folded papers is continued until the required sample size has been drawn.

The table of random number method makes use of table of random numbers. The
procedure involves numbering of each subject in the population. The digits are
arranged vertically and horizontally. The subjects whose numbers agree with the
random numbers are included in the sample.

B. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: Systematic sampling is also

called interval or counting off sampling. This sampling technique entails selecting
certain subjects or items from a population according to a pre-determined interval.
It is a method of selecting a sample at fixed interval from a population arranged in
serial or alphabetical order. For example, if a sample of 80 teachers are to be
selected from a list with 400 names. This formula is used to select the sample.
K= N/n where
N = Population size
N = Sample size
K = 400/80 = 5

The interval size is 5, therefore, randomly select serial number 1-5 from the
sampling frame.
Meaning, we must start our selection from any random point among the first five
teachers on the list. If the random starting point among the first five teachers on the
list is number 3, then our sample of 80 teachers will include the following
numbers.3,8,13,18,23,28,33,38,43 …...… 398.

C. STRATIFIED SAMPLING TECHNIQUE: Stratified sampling is a means of

selecting sample by dividing the population into non-overlapping groups or
categories called strata. This sampling is applicable to a heterogeneous population.
The strata must have common characteristics. If for example, a population is made
up of three group of students, say high achievers, average achievers and low
achievers, these levels of academic achievements could be used to divide the

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population into three strata. There are two types of stratified sampling namely,
proportionate and disproportionate stratified sampling.

D. CLUSTER SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: Cluster or area sampling is used

when the population to be sampled is vast and spread over a wide geographical
area. The population is first divided into clusters. The subjects in a cluster are
physically close together and tend to have similar characteristics. For example, if a
researcher wants to study “the attitude of Nigerian secondary school students to
health education, he would select from the 36 states.

A sample of ten states can be selected. The selection would be done up to local
government. Cluster sampling is either single stage or multi stage. Single cluster is
done once while multi stage occurs more than once.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Non probability sampling technique involves the researcher’s personal judgment.
There is no likelihood of including each subject in the sample. No privilege of
equal chance. The sample is not used to make generalization. There are three
major types of non-probability sampling technique, namely, purposive,
convenience and quota sampling techniques.

PURPOSIVE OR JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING: This technique involves selecting

sample based on the researcher’s decision. In this type of sampling, the researcher
selects sample to satisfy his/her pre-determined criteria. The researcher hand
picks the sample because of personal judgment or what the researcher feels is
ideal. There is non-representativeness of the population. This technique can be
used to carry out a pilot study.

CONVENIENCE/ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING: This is a technique in which the

researcher chooses a number of respondents at will. The researcher selects a
sample consisting of only those subjects or items which are conveniently available.
Only subjects that can easily be reached are sampled. It is economical in terms of
time and money. For example, a researcher may carry out a survey in a University
and selects only the students who are available and willing to take part in the
survey.

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QUOTA SAMPLING TECHNIQUE: this involves selecting a sample on the basis

of the different qualities of the population. Various components of the population
are included in the sample. The emphasis is to ensure adequate representation of
the various subjects of the population.

INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

DATA: Data can be described as facts, observations or information relating to a

particular study. Data can be classified into two major groups, namely, primary
and secondary data. To select data, there are instruments designed for data
collection.

Instruments of data collection are the devices used in collecting data from a
population or sample. The instruments commonly used are referred to as tools for
data collection.

TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

The instruments used for data collection are:
1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Observation
4. Test
5. Historical sources

QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire can be defined as a list of pre-set statement, usually in writing or

printed form, which are related to the purpose of the study, research questions and
hypotheses, which the respondents are expected to respond to in writing.

A questionnaire is used for obtaining factual information from respondents about

themselves, other people or objects and events within their environments. A good
questionnaire should consist of two major parts, namely, descriptive and analytic
part.

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The first part of the questionnaire which is known as descriptive part, seeks
information about the nature and characteristics of the respondents. The
descriptive part include gender, age, social class, educational qualification, years
of working experience and others. The second part of the questionnaire, which is
known as the analytic part is concerned with the relevant information that a
researcher wants about the problem under investigation. The information relates to
attitude, opinion, belief and so on. Example of analytic part is, your opinion about
the level of students use of social media.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

There are two types of questionnaire namely, structured and unstructured

questionnaire.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE OR CLOSED QUESTIONNAIRE

The structured question otherwise known as closed or fixed questionnaire response
type, requires the respondents to make choice from a number of options supplied
by the researcher. This restricts the respondents to some response options. In this
type of questionnaire statements are provided and the respondents are offered the
choice of alternative responses to select the one that applies or best suit the
statement. The respondents are instructed to circle, tick and underline their
chosen responses. Examples of structured questionnaire are:

Instruction: Tick (√) the option that appeals or apply to the response to the
following question/statements.

1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Age: 25 - 35 years [ ] 36 years and above [ ]
3. Marital status: Married [ ] Single [ ]
4. Type of institution: Federal polytechnic [ ] State polytechnic [ ]

SECTION B
Instruction: Please read the following items carefully and tick [ ] the appropriate
column that best describes your view about each statement.

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Rating Scale
key
Strongly Agree (SA) = 4
Agree (A) = 3
Disagree (D) =2
Strongly Agree (SD) = 1
Challenges of OTM Students during SIWES exercise

S/N Challenges of Publishing SA A D SD

(4) (3) (2) (1)
1. SIWES students are placed in offices not related to their
studies which may improve their academic performance
2. SIWES students lack work attitudes and habits, which
may improve their academic performance
3. SIWES students are not committed during the exercise,
which may improve their academic performance
4. Students are not exposed to information and
communication technology (ICT) skills during SIWES
exercise, which may improve their academic
performance
5. Students are not exposed to skills required for effective
office performance during SIWES, which may improve
their academic performance
6 Students are not visited regularly as it ought to be during
SIWES exercise by supervisors, which may improve
their academic performance
7. Students are not well supervised by institutional based
supervisors, which may improve their academic
performance
8. Students are discouraged due to poor supervision by
institutional based supervisor, which may improve their
academic performance
9. Students are not well remunerated during SIWES, which
may improve their academic performance

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ADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

1. It is not time consuming to respond to the options that are provided, from
which, the respondents are required to select appropriate answers.
2. The response process is facilitated as respondents are saved the mental task
of thinking and reasoning out the answers.
3. It keeps the respondent to the subject of the study as they do not have the
freedom to give their different opinions of feelings & about the questions.
4. The easiness of completing the questionnaire helps in attracting the interest
of the respondents and gaining their cooperation.
5. It facilitates data analysis and the establishment of validity and reliability
indices for the instrument.
6. It is relatively objective.

DISADVANTAGES OF STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

1. It does not give the respondents freedom to respond to the questions in their
own way.
2. It does not completely reveal the motives of the respondents.
3. The researcher may not obtain sufficient relevant information by using this
type of questionnaire.
4. Difficult to generate option.

UNSTRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

Unstructured questionnaire, otherwise known as open-ended or free response type

does not provide response options for the respondents to select from. In this type of
questionnaire, relevant questions are provided for the respondents to give answers
in their own way. Spaces or lines are provided for answers. Examples of this type of
questionnaire are given below:

1. State the reasons why SIWES students are placed in offices not related to
their studies which may improve their academic performance

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……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………

2. Explain the reasons why SIWES students are not committed during the
exercise, which may improve their academic performance
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
.......................................

3. State the reasons why students are not visited regularly as it ought to be
during SIWES exercise by institution-based supervisors, which may improve
their academic performance
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
………………………….

ADVANTAGES OF UNSTRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

1. It gives the respondents the freedom to respond to questions in their own

way, which leads to the acquisition of more relevant information.
2. The researcher obtains relevant information he/she may not have gotten. The
respondents bridge the gap through their relevant responses which may
make the researcher to understand the problem better.
3. It is possible to clear mis-understanding through in-depth information
provided by the respondents.
4. The items are easy for the researcher to generate.

DISADVANTAGES OF UNSTRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

1. The questions may be difficult and time consuming to answer and this may
make the respondents not to be interested in filling the questionnaire.
2. It does not facilitate data analysis and estimate the validity and reliability of
the instrument because of the diverse response options.

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3. The respondents may digress from the subject matter because of the freedom
to respond in their own way.
4. The respondents may have the problem of communication and as such
would not be able to express their answers well.
5. A lot of time is wasted in the process of analyzing the responses.

CONSTRUCTION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

A good questionnaire is tasky to construct. The steps or the procedures to be

followed in constructing a questionnaire are briefly discussed thus:

STEP ONE: IDENTIFICATION OF THE OBJECTIVES OF THE

QUESTIONNAIRE: The objectives the questionnaire is expected to achieve should
be identified. The researcher must take into consideration the purposes, questions
and hypotheses formulated in chapter one.

STEP TWO: READING RELEVANT LITERATURE AND CONSULTATION

WITH EXPERTS: The researcher is expected to read relevant literature, other
questionnaire constructed by previous researchers.
Experts in the area of study should be consulted to obtain needed information.

STEP THREE: GENERATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS: The

researcher may develop or formulate questionnaire items or adopt the
questionnaire of previous researchers. In developing the items, the researcher
should consider the characteristics of the sample, the type of response option to
formulate.

STEP FOUR: EDITING THE INITIAL ITEMS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: The

researcher should look carefully through the items generated in step three. Items
which are similar in content as well as those that are not closely related to the
purpose of the study should be dropped. The researcher should rephrase the
statements that were not properly phrased. The statements should be clear and
simple. Avoid double barreled questions, leading statements, embarrassing
questions, political/religious sensitive statement.

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STEP 5: VALIDATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: After editing the

questionnaire items, the next important thing to do is to establish its content
validity through expert judgment. This is to ascertain that the items of the
questionnaire covered the purpose of the study and the problem. Expert judgment
is done by giving it to experts to read to know if it covers the variables and if it is
comprehensive enough to gather the required data. The researcher must include
the purpose of the study, and the research questions/hypotheses in addition to a
letter of introduction. The corrections made by the experts should be effected to
ensure that the instrument has high content validity. The questionnaire is then
pilot tested. Pilot test will enable the researcher to determine the worth of the
questionnaire and also to determine the reliability. The reliability is determined by
standardized procedures such as split half, test-retest, coefficient alpha.

ADMINISTRATION OF QUESTIONNAIRE

After pilot testing, the researcher needs to make all corrections and modification
before the administration of the instrument. The administration is either face-to-
face or mailing method.

FACE TO FACE METHOD: This method is otherwise known as on the spot

method. The instrument is administered face to face by the researcher or research
assistants. The questionnaire is either completed on the spot and given back to the
research or the researcher is requested to come back later to collect them from the
respondents. It encourages high response rate since the researcher or the assistant
is available to explain whatever the respondents do not understand. It is time
consuming.

MAILING METHOD: In this method, the researcher mails the questionnaire to

each respondent with an accompanying letter known as letter of transmittal. This
letter is meant to introduce the researcher and to solicit for the respondents’
cooperation in filling the questionnaire. This letter should contain the topic,
purpose of the study, and assure the respondents of utmost secrecy or
confidentiality. The respondents are requested to complete the questionnaire and
return by post within a specified period of time. The questionnaire can also be sent
online and the reply can also be sent online as well. If the posting is not online, a
self-addressed envelope should be enclosed for returning the questionnaire.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

A good questionnaire is characterized by the following features:

1. A good questionnaire should be legible. The print should be clear, neat and
attractive.
2. The items should not be too few and too many for it to be usable.
3. The procedures such as the method of administration, scoring and
interpretation should be simple and easy.
4. The questionnaire should yield consistent responses when it is administered
at different occasions.
5. The instruction for filling or completing the questionnaire as well as the
wording of its items should be clear enough to avoid misinterpretation.
6. The questionnaire should be relevant to the purpose of the study and yield
data that will enable the researcher to answer the questions and test the
hypotheses that guide the study.
7. The responses elicited should be easily quantifiable to facilitate data
analysis and interpretation of results.

INTERVIEW

This is a face to face interpersonal interaction in which one person (the

interviewer) asks another person (the interviewee) questions that are responded to
orally. Interview enables the researcher to obtain firsthand information. Like
questionnaire, interview questions should be designed with the objectives of the
study, research question/hypotheses in mind. The interviewer outlines the
questions and statements that will elicit answers. This is done by preparing before
the interview a written outline/schedule or checklist of the plan for the interview.

TYPES OF INTERVIEW

Interview is divided into two types namely, structured and unstructured interview.

STRUCTURED INTERVIEW: Structured interview is one in which the interviewer

has a definite set of questions and pre-determined order of asking the questions.

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Structured interview offers the interviewee a choice among two or more

alternatives. The most common type of interview schedule requires YES - NO,
agree – disagree answers. This results in achieving greater uniformity of
measurement and reliability. Unstructured or open-ended items are those that give
a frame of reference for the interviewee’s responses.

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW: Unstructured interview is one in which the

interviewer maps out the areas to obtain information and prepares some questions
merely to guide him during the interview. In this technique, the order for asking
the set of questions already prepared by the researcher is to a large extent
determined by the conditions prevailing during the interview as well as by the
responses of the interviewee.

ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW

1. It is useful for collecting data from children and illiterates.

2. The truthfulness of responses of the interview can be checked by asking the
same question at different times and by watching the non-verbal expressions
of the interviewee during the interview.
3. Interview is useful for collection of in-depth information from the
interviewee on any topic.
4. The researcher is sure of recording the actual responses of the interview
since he/she does the recording.
5. The interviewee has the opportunity to seek clarification on any question
that is confusing and the interviewer can also seek clarification on unclear
responses from the interviewee.

DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW

1. It is time consuming to obtain information from a number of persons.

2. Variations across different interview situations do affect the responses
obtained and this also affects the reliability of the information obtained.
3. Conducting interview requires that the researcher should be skillful in the
art of interviewing.
4. The interviewees may fake their responses to questions posed to them by the
interviewer in order to appear good before the interviewer.

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PROCEDURES FOR CONSTRUCTING INTERVIEW

There are three stages in any interview. They are, before the interview, during the
interview and after the interview.

BEFORE THE INTERVIEW: The researcher has to do the following things before
an interview commences:
1. Specify the objectives of the study.
2. Map out the specific areas of the subject matter of interview on which
questions will be based. It must be related to the purpose of the study,
research questions/hypotheses.
3. Prepare a list of important questions to be asked.
4. Rehearse the questions several times before the interview.
5. Book appointment with the interviewees and ensure you keep the
appointment.

DURING THE INTERVIEW:

1. Establish a friendly relationship with the interviewees by raising questions

and making comments that will make them feel at home with you.
2. Gain the interviewees’ confidence by assuring them that their responses will
be treated confidentially.
3. Ensure that the language you use in the interview fits the educational level,
age, religion and social position of the interviewees.
4. Do not pass judgment on the interviewees on the basis of the information
he/she gives you.
5. Listen carefully and keep control of the exercise by not allowing the
interviewees to take you off the subject matter of the interview.
6. If you wish to take note or use a tape recorder during the interview, let the
interviewee know that you are recording to enable you remember what
he/she tells you.
7. Probe further the responses given to you by the interviewee in order to
obtain more information by using probing questions.
8. Avoid using leading questions because they suggest answers to the
interviewee.
9. End the interview on a pleasant note by thanking the interviewee for giving
you audience.

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AFTER THE INTERVIEW: After the interview, the researcher should do the
following:
1. Complete the notes immediately to avoid loss of information.
2. Do not allow personal bias to influence your interpretation.

OBSERVATION

Observation is a direct method of obtaining information about an individual’s

behavior, objects, situations or events. In this technique the observer is able to
obtain first-hand information. Observation involves watching, and recording. It is
an on the spot approach.

TYPES OF OBSERVATION

There are two types of observation namely; participant and non-participant

observation. In the participant observation, the observer is part of the setting where
observation takes place. For example, a counselor who is interested in studying the
conduct of students in class can conduct the study in HND 1 class, using
observation as a major technique for data collection.

In this case, the counselor is part of the setting.

In non-participant observation the observer is not part of the setting or group being
observed. It involves using assistants called collaborators.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1. This technique helps the observer to obtain firsthand information because

they watch and record information as they occur in a natural setting.
2. Authentic information can be obtained if participant technique is used.
3. It is most useful for obtaining information on human behavior.

DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION

1. Observation is time consuming and expensive to carry out particularly if so

many people are to be observed.
2. The presence of the observer can make the observed to fake behavior.

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PROCEDURES FOR CONDUCTING OBSERVATION

The following steps should be followed by researchers who are interested in using
observation.

1. Specify the objectives of the study.

2. Define the behavior to be observed in specific, precise and observable form.
3. Prepare an observational schedule or checklist/rating scale for recording
behavior.
4. Revise and correct the observed schedule based on the comments of the
judges and the result of the pilot test.
5. Use the corrected schedule to observe behavior.

TEST

A test is an instrument or device used for measuring an individual’s achievement,

ability, performance or other traits. Data for research can also be obtained through
the use of tests. There are different types of test which include; intelligent test,
achievement test, aptitude test.

ADVANTAGES OF TEST

1. Test is used in providing objective sample of learner’s achievement.

2. Test is useful in diagnosing learner’s areas of strength and weakness.
3. Test is useful in the evaluation of the influence of different factors like
teaching methods, use of instructional materials, learning environment,
anxiety, attitude, aspiration etc.
4. Test is useful for selection & placement.

DISADVANTAGES OF TEST

1. Test may not give the true picture of the learner’s ability.
2. If some intervening factors in test construction, administration and scoring
are not controlled by the researcher, the result of the test may not be
authentic for making decisions.

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HISTORICAL SOURCES OF DOCUMENT

There are four (4) major types of historical sources of data collection, which can be
utilized by a researcher who is conducting a historical research. They are:
documents, quantitative records, oral testimonies and remains or relics.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal can be defined as an account of what a researcher wants to

study and how he or she intends to do this. It can be compared to a building plan.
A research proposal is important because it directs and guides a researcher in the
execution of the research project. A good research proposal normally gives rise to a
worthwhile research project and is presented in future tense.

PARTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The outline of the main parts of a research proposal are presented below:
Chapter one – Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Purpose of the study
1.4 Research questions
1.5 Hypotheses
1.6 Significance of the study
1.7 Scope of the study
1.8 Limitation of the study
1.9 Operational definition of terms

Chapter two – Literature Review

Chapter three – Methodology

3.1 Design of the study
3.2 Population of the study
3.3 Sample and sampling techniques
3.4 Instrument for data collection

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3.5 Validation of instrument

3.6 Method of data collection
3.7 Method of data analysis.

RESEARCH REPORT

A research report is a written account of the manner in which a research is

conducted, what a researcher has done, the procedure adopted for doing it and the
conclusion drawn from the findings. It is usually presented in past tense because it
is an account of what has been executed.

PARTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

1. Cover title page
2. Title page
3. Approval page
4. Dedication
5. Acknowledgments
6. Table of contents
7. List of tables
8. List of figures (if any)
9. Abstract
10. Chapter One – Introduction
11. Chapter Two – Review of Literature
12. Chapter Three – Methodology
13. Chapter Four – Discussion of Findings
14. Chapter Five – Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
15. References
16. Appendices

The above research report can be categorized into three main parts, namely: the
preliminaries, the main body of the research report and the references materials
and the appendices.

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REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reference is the list of all sources that were actually cited in a research report
while bibliography consists of both the works cited in the report and other
publications that were consulted but not cited in the report.

EXAMPLES OF CITED AUTHORS

Each stage of career development is characterized by different life roles,

developmental responsibilities, relationships and learning (Saleem & Amin, 2013).
From the foregoing, the stage of career development that suit the conducts, meets
the needs and work requirements of OTM lecturers in polytechnics is at the
maintenance stage. This is supported by Kosine and Lewis (2008) who argued that
the maintenance stage is the mainstay of careers that involves promotion and any
form of advancement, which unfold in bureaucratic organizations where people
work and retire after thirty-five years of meritorious service or sixty-five years of
age. According to super (1996) the main characteristics of the maintenance stage
is continual adjustment.

APA STYLE OF REFERENCING

APA means America Psychological Association. In this style, borrowed ideas are
acknowledged in the body by quoting the name, without initials, date and the title
of the work. APA style uses the author, date method of citation. Examples include:

Ajidahun, C.O. (2007). The training, development and education of library

manpower in information technology in university libraries in
Nigeria. World Libraries, 17 (1), 1-14
Akerejola, O. (2008). Information and guidelines for Students Industrial Work
Experience
Scheme. Retrieved 13th February, 2020 from: [Link]
[Link]/docs/[Link]

Amoor S.S. (2010). An evaluation of the performance of secretarial Students

Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) in Nigerian Universities.
Journal of Professional Secretaries and Administrator, 4(12), 55.

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Ekpenyong, L. E. (2008). Foundations of Technical and Vocational Education:

evolution and practice for Nigerian students in VTE and adult education,
policy makers and practitioners, Benin City: Ambik Press Limited
Ezenwa, N.M. (2009). Industrial work experience: A medium for actualizing vision
2010 through home economics education. Journal of Women in colleges of
Education, 2,154-160.
Koko, M.N. (2003). Teaching business: Methods and procedures. Owerri, Nigeria:
Besthand Publishers.

Ekpenyong, L. E. & Edokpolor, J. E. (2016). Constructivist Approaches: An

emerging paradigm for the teaching and learning of business education.
Nigerian Journal of Business Education, 3(1), 141-149.

Ugwuegbulam, C. N., & Nwebo, I. J. (2014). Constructivist teaching model:

Implications
for serving teacher educators of the old school generation. International
Journal of
Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 4 (6), 1-7.

Mugambi1, M. M., Mwove, D. K., & Musalia, F. G. (2015). Influence of teachers

on
classroom learning environment. Journal of Educational Policy and
Entrepreneurial Research, 2 (2), 90-102.

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