Vectors

1.1 Basic Definition - Coordinate Systems

➢ Two dimensional plane-

any point in the plane with an ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers, a is x-coordinate, b is y-
coordinate.

➢ Three dimensional plane- x, y, z

any point in the plane with an ordered triple (a, b, c) of real numbers, a is x-coordinate, b is y-
coordinate, c is z- coordinate.

Figure 1: Coordinate axes for three dimensional plane.

Choose a fix point O (origin) and the three directed line through O that are perpendicular to
each other, called the coordinate axes.

x and y- axes as being the horizontal and z-axis being vertical.

Coordinate planes

yz-plan
xz-plan

xy-plan

Figure 2 (a) 2(b)

1
Let P be any point in the space, we represent the point P by the ordered triple (a, b, c) of real
numbers and a, b and c are the coordinates of P.
a – the x- coordinate
b – the y- coordinate
c – the z- coordinate

To locate the point P(a, b, c), start at the origin O and move a unit along the x-axis, b units
parallel to y-axis, c units parallel to the z-axis.
z

P(a, b, c)

a
O c y
x b

Figure 3: Coordinate of P.

•(0, 0, c) •R(0, b, c)
•
S(a, 0, c)
• P(a, b, c)
a •O c • y
(a, 0, 0)• (0, b, c)
x b •
Q(a, b, 0)

Figure 4: Coordinate of P determines a rectangular box.

• Drop a perpendicular from P to xy-plane, we get a point Q with coordinates (a,

b, 0), called the projection of P onto xy-plane.
• Similarly, R(0, b, c) and S(a, 0, c) are projections of P onto yz-plane and xz-
plane, respectively.

The Cartesian product      = (x, y, z ) x, y, z   is the set of all ordered triples of real
numbers and is denoted by  3 .

Example 1.1 (Graphing equations)

What surface in  3 are represented by the following equations?

(a) z=3
(b) y=5
2
Solution:
(a) The equation z = 3 represents the set (x, y, z ) z = 3which is the set of all points in
 3 whose z- coordinate is 3. This is horizontal plane that is parallel to the xy-plane
and three units above it.

(b) The equation y = 5 represents the set of all points in  3 whose y- coordinate is 5. This
is vertical plane that is parallel to the xz-plane and five units above it.

Figure 5

In general, if k is constant, then x = k represents a plane parallel to the yz-plane, y = k is a

plane parallel to xz-plane, and z = k is a plane parallel to the xy-plane.

Distance Formula in Three Dimensions

The distance P1 P2 between the points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z 2 ) is

P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2

Example 1.2

The distance from the point P(2, -1, 7) to the point Q(1, -3, 5) is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(1 − 2)2 + (−3 + 1)2 + (5 − 7)2 = √1 + 4 + 4 = √9 = 3
|𝑃𝑄

1.2 Vectors

➢ Physical quantities (measurable) can be categorized into vector and scalar.

• A scalar is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, e.g. mass, length, time,
temperature, and real number.
• A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction, e.g. displacement,
velocity, force, and acceleration.
3
 ➢ Graphically a vector is represented by arrow OP. The arrow defines the direction
while the magnitude of the vector is indicated by the length of the arrow. The tail end
O is called origin or initial point of the vector; and the head P is called the terminal
point.
 P
→
A or A~ or A

O
➢ Analytically a vector is represented by
 
A , A letter with over-arrow
A bold face type letter
A letter with below-tilde
~

Combination of Vectors
Suppose a particle moves from A to B, so its displacement vector is AB . Then the particle
changes direction and moves from B to C, with displacement vector BC . The combined effect
of these displacements is that the particle has moved from A to C. The resulting displacement
vector AC is called the sum of AB and BC can be written as
AC = AB + BC

C
BC
AC
AC = AB+BC
B
AB
A Figure 6

Definition of Vector Addition

If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is at the terminal point of u, then the
sum u + v is the vector from the initial point of u to the terminal point of v.

u
u +v v
v v +u u +v
v

u u
v+u = u+v
Figure 7: The Triangle Law Figure 8 : The Parallelogram Law

4
 ➢ In Figure 8, we start with the same vectors u and v as in Figure left and draw another
copy of v with the same initial point as u.
➢ Completing the parallelogram, we see that u + v = v + u.

Example 1.3:

Draw the sum of the vectors a and b shown as below.

b
a

Solution:
First translate b and place its tail at the tip of a, being careful to draw a copy of b that has the
same length and direction. Then we draw the vector a + b (Figure 9) starting at the initial
point of a and ending at the terminal point of the copy of b.

Alternatively, we could place b so its starts where a starts and construct a + b by the
parallelogram Law (Figure 10).
a
a
a+ b
b b+a b a+b = b+a
a+b

Figure 9 Figure 10

Definition of Vector Subtraction

The negative of a vector v, denoted by –v, is the vector that has the same length as v but is
oppositely directed, and the difference of v from w, denoted by w - v, is taken to be the sum

w – v = w + ( - v)

-v
v w w- v w w w–v
• -v + w
-v
-v • v v
Figure 11(a)
Figure 11(b) Figure 11 (c)

Definition of Scalar Multiplication

If c is scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple cv is the vector whose length is
c times the length of v and whose direction is the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v
if c < 0. If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
5
 ori times 2
times 1/2
v 2v 1
v -v -1.5v
2
inverse and times 1.5
inverse
Example 1.4:
If a and b are the vectors shown as below, draw a – 2b.

b
a

Solution: First draw the vector -2b pointing in the direction opposite to b and twice as long.
We place it with its tail at the tip of a and then use the Triangle Law to draw a + (–2b).

2b a
b
a
a - 2b
Figure 12 a-2b

Components

➢ Place the initial point of a vector a at the origin of a rectangular coordinate system, then
the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form (a1, a2) or (a1, a2, a3), depending on
whether coordinate system is two- or three- dimensional.
➢ These coordinates are called the components of a and can be written as
a = a1 , a 2 or a = a1 , a2 , a3
z

y
• (a1, a2, a3)
• (a1, a2)

x
O x y
Figure 13 : a = a1 , a 2
Figure 14: a = a1 , a2 , a3
2-dimensioanl
three-dimensional

➢ In three dimensions, the vector a = OP = a1 , a2 , a3 is a position vector of point

P(a1, a2, a3).

6
"<>", vector bracket
It is sometimes necessary to consider vectors whose initial points are not at the origin. If AB
denotes the vector with initial point A( x1 , y1 ) and terminal point B( x2 , y2 ) , and the vector a
with representation AB , then the components of this vector are given by the formula
a = x2 − x1 , y 2 − y1
That is, the components of are obtained by subtracting the coordinates of the initial point
from the coordinates of the terminal point. In Figure 15, the vector AB is the difference of
vectors OB and OA , so

AB = OB − OA = x2 , y 2 − x1 , y1 = x2 − x1 , y 2 − y1

B( x 2 , y 2 )
A( x1 , y1 ) a •
•
OA OB

Figure 15: a = AB = OB − OA

For the components of a vector in 3-space, we have the following result:

1 Given a points A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) , the vector a with representation AB is

a = x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1
3-dimensional

Example 1.5:

Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with initial point A (2,−3,4) and
terminal point B (− 2,1,1) .

Solution:
By (1), the vector corresponding to AB is
a = − 2 − 2,1 − (−3),1 − 4 = − 4, 4, − 3

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The magnitude or length of the vector v is the length of any of its representations and is
denoted by the symbol | v | or || v ||. The magnitude of a vector is also called the norm of a
vector.

2 The length of two-dimensional vector a = a1 , a 2 is

2 2
| a | = a1 + a 2
The length of three-dimensional vector a = a1 , a 2 , a3 is
2 2 2
| a | = a1 + a2 + a3

3 If a = a1 , a 2 and b = b1 ,b2 , then

a + b = a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 a - b = a1 − b1 , a2 − b2
c a = a1 , a 2
Similarly, for three-dimensional vectors,
a1 , a 2 , a3 + b1 , b2 , b3 = a1 + b1 , a 2 + b2 , a3 + b3
a1 , a 2 , a3 - b1 , b2 , b3 = a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3
c a1 , a 2 , a3 = ca1 , ca 2 , ca 3

Example 1.6: (Operation vectors)

If a = 4,0,3 and b = − 2,1,5 , find | a | and the vectors a + b, a – b, 3b, and 2a + 5b.

Solution:
|a|= 4 2 + 0 2 + 32 = 25 = 5
a + b = 4,0,3 + − 2,1,5 = 4 − 2, 0 + 1, 3 + 5 = 2,1, 8
a - b = 4,0,3 - − 2,1,5 = 4 − (−2), 0 − 1, 3 − 5 = 6, − 1, − 2
3b = 3 − 2,1,5 = − 6,3,15
2a + 5b = 2 4,0,3 + 5 − 2,1,5 = 8,0,6 + − 10,5,25 = − 2,5,31

Properties of vectors If a and b are vectors in Vn and c and d are scalars, then

1. a + b = b + a commutative law 2. a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b ) + c associative law

3. a + 0 = a 4. a + ( -a ) = 0
5. c ( a + b) = c a + c b 6. (c + d ) a = c a + d a distribution law
7. ( c d ) a = c ( d a ) associative law 8. 1 a = a

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The Standard Unit Vectors

When a rectangular coordinate system is introduced in R2 and R3, the unit vectors in the
positive directions of coordinate axes are called the standard unit vectors.

In R2 these vectors are denoted by

i = 1,0 and j = 0,1

In R3: i = 1,0,0 j = 0,1,0 k = 0,0,1

Then i, j, k are vectors that have length 1 and point in the directions of the positive x-, y-, and
z-axes and similarly in two dimensions. z
y

(0 ,1)
k
j j

x i
i
y
(1 ,0) x

(a) (b)

Figure 16(a) & 16(b): Standard basis vectors in R2 and R3.

If a = a1 , a 2 , a3 , then we can write

a = a1 , a 2 , a3 = a1 ,0,0 + 0, a 2 ,0 + 0,0, a3
= a1 1,0,0 + a2 0,1,0 + a 3 0,0,1

a = a1 i + a2 j + a 3 k
z

y (a1, a2, a3)

•
a
• (a1, a2)
a a1i a3k
a2j

x
a1i a2j y
x
Figure 17(a): a = a1i + a2j
Figure17 (b): a = a1i + a2j + a3k

Thus any vector in can be expressed in term of the standard basis vectors i, j, and k.

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For instance,
1,−2,6 = i - 2j + 6k

Similarly, in two dimensions, we can write

a = a1 , a 2 = a1i + a2j
Example 1.7:

If a = i + 2j – 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express the vector 2a + 3b in terms of i, j and k.

Solution:

2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j – 3k) + 3(4i + 7k) = 2i + 4j – 6k + 12i + 21k = 14i + 4j + 15k

Unit Vectors
A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1. For instance, i, j and k are all unit vectors. In
general, if a ≠ 0, then the unit vector that has the same direction as a is
𝐚
̂=
𝐮
‖𝐚‖
need to find ||a||

Example 1.8:

Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i - j - 2k.

Solution:

Let a = 2i - j - 2k, then

‖𝐚‖ = √22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = √9 = 3

So, the unit vector with the same direction is:

𝐚 2𝐢 − 𝐣 − 2𝐤 2 1 2
̂=
𝐮 = = 𝐢 − 𝐣 − 𝐤
‖𝐚‖ 3 3 3 3

The Dot Product

Definition:
The Dot Product in Component Form

6 If a = a1 , a 2 ,, a n and b = b1 , b2 ,, bn are vectors in Rn, then the dot

product of a and b is denoted by 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 and is defined by

𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛

10
Example 1.9: (Computing dot products from components)
2,4  3,−1 = 2(3) + 4(−1) = 2

1 1
− 1,7,4  6,2,− = (−1)(6) + 7(2) + 4(− ) = 6
2 2
(𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 3𝐤) ∙ (2𝐣 − 𝐤) = 1(0) + 2(2) + (−3)(−1) = 7

Our next objective is to define a useful multiplication operation on vectors in R2 and R3 and
then extend that operation to Rn.

The Dot Product in Geometry Form

4 If a and b are nonzero vectors, and if  is the angle between a and b, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋,

then the dot product of a and b is denoted by 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 and is defined as
𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = ‖𝐚‖‖𝐛‖cos𝜃

𝜃 is the smaller angle between the vectors when they are drawn with the same initial point. If
either a or b is 0, we define 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 0. a*b= 0; angle = 90 degree
Two nonzero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between
𝜋
them is 𝜃 = 2 . For such vectors we have
𝜋
𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = ‖𝐚‖‖𝐛‖cos ( ) = 0.
2

𝜋
Conversely if 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 0, then cos𝜃 = 0, so 𝜃 = 2 .

5 Two vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 0.

𝜋
• If 0 ≤ 𝜃 < , then cos𝜃 > 0
2
𝜋
• If < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, then cos𝜃 < 0
2

𝜋 𝜋
𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 is positive for 𝜃 < and negative for 𝜃 > 2 .
2

a 𝜃 b
𝜃
b a
a
b

Figure 18(a) :𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 > 0 Figure 18(b) :𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 0 Figure 18(c) :𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 < 0

𝜋
𝜃 acute 𝜃= 𝜃 obtuse
2

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Example 1.10: (Testing for orthogonality)
Show that 2𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 𝐤 is perpendicular to 5𝐢 − 4𝐣 + 2𝐤 .

(2𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 𝐤) ∙ 5𝐢 − 4𝐣 + 2𝐤 = 2(5) + 2(−4) + (−1)(2) = 0

Example 1.11:

Find the angle between the vectors the vectors 𝐚 =< 2,2, −1 > and 𝐛 =< 5, −3,2 >.

Solution: 𝐚∙𝐛 2
cos𝜃 = =
|𝐚| = √22 + 22 + (−1)2 = 3 |𝐚||𝐛| 3√38
So, angle between a and b is
|𝐛| = √52 + (−3)2 + 22 = √38
2
𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 2(5) + 2(−3) + (−1)(2) = 2 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) ≈ 1.46 rad(or 84° )
3√38

If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and c is a scalar, then

Properties of the Dot Product
2
1. 𝐚 ∙ 𝐚 = |𝐚| 2. 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 = 𝐛 ∙ 𝐚
3. 𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 + 𝐜) = 𝐚 ∙ 𝐛 + 𝐚 ∙ 𝐜 4. (𝑐𝐚) ∙ 𝐛 = 𝑐(𝐚 ∙ 𝐛) = 𝐚 ∙ (𝑐𝐛)
5. 0 ∙ 𝐚 = 𝟎

Cross Product of Vectors

The cross product a x b of two vectors a and b, unlike the dot product, is a vector.
Note that a x b is defined only when a and b are three-dimensional (3-D) vectors.

Definition If
𝐚 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and 𝐛 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 are vectors in 3-space, then the cross
product 𝐚 × 𝐛 is the vector defined by

𝐚 × 𝐛 = 〈𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 , 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 〉

or in determinant notation,
𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
𝐚 × 𝐛 = (|𝑏 𝑏3 | , − | 𝑏1 𝑏3 | , |𝑏1 𝑏2 |)
2

Example 1.12 : (calculating the cross product)

Find 𝐮 × 𝐯, where 𝐮 =< 1,2, −2 > and 𝐯 =< 3,0,1 >.

Solution:
2 −2 1 −2 1 2
𝐮 × 𝐯 = (| |,−| |,| |) = < 2, −7, −6 >
0 1 3 1 3 0
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 Geometric Interpretation of Cross Product
If u and v are vectors in 3-space, then the norm of 𝐚 × 𝐛 has a useful geometric interpretation.
Hence we have
area ‖𝐚 × 𝐛‖ = ‖𝐚‖‖𝐛‖ sin 𝜃, for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ π
b

‖𝐛‖ ‖𝐛‖ sin 𝜃

Figure 19
𝜃 a
‖𝐚‖

But ‖𝐛‖ sin 𝜃 is the altitude (height) of the parallelogram determine by a and b (figure
above). Thus the area A of this parallelogram is given by
area : A = (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)(𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒) = ‖𝐚‖‖𝐛‖ sin 𝜃 = ‖𝐚 × 𝐛‖
Theorem: Area of a Parallelogram
If a and b are vectors in 3-space, then ‖𝐚 × 𝐛‖ is equal to the area of the parallelogram
determined by a and b.

Example 1.13: (Area of a Triangle)

Find the area of the triangle determined by the points 𝑃1 (2,2,0), 𝑃2 (−1,0,2) and 𝑃3 (0,4,3).

1 1 15
z ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Area, 𝐴 = ‖𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑃2 × 𝑃1 𝑃3 ‖ = (15) =
2 2 2

𝑃2 (−1,0,2) 𝑃3 (0,4,3) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃1 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 𝑂 + 𝑂𝑃2 =< −2, −2,0 > +< −1,0,2 >=< −3, −2,2 >

y ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃3 = 𝑃1 𝑂 + 𝑂𝑃3 =< −2, −2,0 > +< 0,4,3 >=< −2,2,3 >

𝑃1 (2,2,0) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃3 =< −10,5, −10 > using cross product of vector
x
Figure 20 |a2 a3|, - |a1 a3|, |a1 a2|
|b2 b3| |b1 b3| |b1 b2|
Theorem (Properties of Cross Product)

If 𝐚 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉, 𝐛 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 and 𝐜 = 〈𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 〉 are any vectors in 3-space and k is

any scalar, then

(a) 𝐚 × 𝐛 = −(𝐛 × 𝐚)

(b) 𝐚 × (𝐛 + 𝐜) = (𝐚 × 𝐛) + (𝐚 × 𝐜)

(c) (𝐚 + 𝐛) × 𝐜 = (𝐚 × 𝐜) + (𝐛 × 𝐜)

(d) 𝑘(𝐚 × 𝐛) = (𝑘𝐚) × 𝐛 = 𝐚 × (𝑘𝐛)

(e) 𝐚 × 𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝐚 = 𝟎
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(f) 𝐚 × 𝐚 = 𝟎
 Theorem (Relationships Involving Cross Product and Dot Product)

If 𝐚 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉, 𝐛 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 and 𝐜 = 〈𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 〉 are vectors in 3-space, then

(a) 𝐚 ∙ (𝐚 × 𝐛) = 𝟎 (𝐚 × 𝐛 is orthogonal to a)

(b) 𝐛 ∙ (𝐚 × 𝐛) = 𝟎 (𝐚 × 𝐛 is orthogonal to b)

(c) 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = (𝐚 ∙ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐚 ∙ 𝐛)𝐜 (relationship between cross and dot product)

(d) (𝐚 × 𝐛) × 𝐜 = (𝐚 ∙ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐛 ∙ 𝐚)𝐜 (relationship between cross and dot product)

Example 1.14: (u × v is perpendicular to u and v)

Consider the vectors 𝐮 =< 1,2, −2 > and 𝐯 =< 3,0,1 >. Show that 𝐮 × 𝐯 is perpendicular to
u and v.

From previous example, we showed that𝐮 × 𝐯 = < 2, −7, −6 >.

Since 𝐮 ∙ (𝐮 × 𝐯) = (1)(2) + (2)(−7) + (−2)(−6) = 0
𝐯 ∙ (𝐮 × 𝐯) = (3)(2) + (0)(−7) + (1)(−6) = 0

Standard Unit Vectors (Cross product of standard basis vectors)

Consider the vectors
𝐢 =< 1,0,0 >, 𝐣 =< 0,1,0 >, 𝐤 =< 0,0,1 >

These vectors each have length 1 and lie along the coordinate axes (Figure). They are called
standard unit vectors in 3-space. Every vector 𝐯 =< 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 > in 3-space is expressible in
terms of i, j, and k since we can write
𝐯 =< 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 >= 𝑣1 < 1,0,0 > +𝑣2 < 0,1,0 > +𝑣3 < 0,0,1 >= 𝑣1 𝐢 + 𝑣2 𝐣 + 𝑣3 𝐤
z

k < 0,0,1 >

j
y
< 0,1,0 >
i < 1,0,0 >

x
Figure 21: The standard unit vectors.

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Example 1.15:

For definition of cross product, we obtain

0 0 1 0 1 0
𝐢 × 𝐣 = (| |,−| |,| |) =< 0,0,1 >= 𝑘
1 0 0 0 0 1
i
Hence, we obtain the following results:
𝐢×𝐢=0 𝐣×𝐣=0 𝐤×𝐤=0
𝐢×𝐣=𝐤 𝐣×𝐤=𝐢 𝐤×𝐢=𝐣
k
𝐣 × 𝐢 = −𝐤 𝐤 × 𝐣 = −𝐢 𝐢 × 𝐤 = −𝐣
j

Figure 22
Determinant Form of Cross Product
It is also worth noting that a cross product can be represented symbolically in the form of
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
𝐚×𝐛=| 1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 3 | = |𝑏 | 𝐢 − | | 𝐣 + |
2
2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏2 | 𝐤
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Example 1.16:
If 𝐚 =< 1,2, −2 > and 𝐛 =< 3,0,1 >, then

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
2 −2 1 −2 1 2
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |1 2 −2| = | |𝐢 − | |𝐣 + | | 𝐤 = 2𝐢 − 7𝐣 − 6𝐤
0 1 3 1 3 0
3 0 1

Definition: If a, b and c are vectors in 3-space, then 𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜) is called the scalar triple
product of a, b, and c.

The scalar triple product of 𝐚 =< 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 >, 𝐛 =< 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 > and 𝐚 =< 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 > can
be calculated from the formula
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

The scalar triple product geometric significance can be seen by considering the parallelepiped
determined by the vectors a, b, and c.

Volume of a Parallelepiped
The volume of the parallelepiped formed by the vectors a, b and c is given by the absolute
value of their scalar triple product:
|𝐕 = 𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜)|

Note: If the volume is equal to 0, then we have that a, b and c all lies in the same plane.

15
Theorem (Coplanar): If the vectors 𝐚 =< 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 > , 𝐛 =< 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 > and 𝐜 =<
𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 > have the same initial point, then they lie in the same plane if and only if
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = 𝟎
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

Example 1.17 (Volume of a Parallelepiped)

Find the volume of parallelepiped determined by the vectors a = 1,0,6 , b = 2,3,−8 ,

c = 8,−5,6 .

volume of 𝐕 = |𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜)|
i j k
~ ~ ~
3 −8 2 −8 2 3
2 3 −8 = i− j+ k = (18 − 40) i − (12 + 64) j + (− 10 − 24) k
−5 6 ~ 8 6 ~ 8 −5 ~ ~ ~ ~
8 −5 6
bxc
= −22 i − 76 j − 34 k = − 22,−76,−34 .
~ ~ ~

𝐕 = |𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜)| = |〈1,0,6〉. 〈−22, −76, −34〉| = |(1 ∙ −22) + (0 ∙ −76) + (6 ∙ −34)|

= |−22 + 0 − 204| = |226| = 226 unit3.
𝐛×𝐜

𝜃 a
h
c
b

Example 1.18: (Coplanar vectors)

Use the scalar triple product to show that the vectors 𝐚 =< 1,4, −7 >, 𝐛 =< 2, −1,4 >, 𝐜 =
< 0, −9,18 > are coplanar; that is they lie the same plane.

Solution:
1 4 −7
−1 4 2 4 2 −1
𝐚 ∙ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = |2 −1 4 | = 1 | | − 4| | − 7| |
−9 18 0 18 0 −9
0 −9 18
= 1(18) − 4(36) − 7(−18) = 0
Therefore the volume of the parallelepiped determined by a, b and c is 0. This means that a,
b and c are coplanar.

16
 Direction angle s and cosines
• The direction angles of a nonzero vector a are the angles α, β, and γ (in the interval [0, π])
that a makes with the positive x-, y-, and z-axes.

R • 𝐴(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )

𝑎3 o
𝑷(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )
O
B

A 𝑎2
Figure 23 Q
• The cosines of these direction angles—cos α, cos β, and cos γ — are called the direction
cosines of the vector a.
• We know |𝐚| = √𝑎1 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2 .
• From the diagram, we obtain:

P P P
|𝐚| |𝐚| |𝐚|
Figure 23(a) Figure 23(b) Figure 23(c)
α β γ
O B O
O 𝑎1 A 𝑎2 R 𝑎3

𝑎1 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎3
cos𝛼 = = cos𝛽 = = cos𝛾 = =
|𝐚| √𝑎 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎 3 2 |𝐚| √𝑎 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2 |𝐚| √𝑎 2 + 𝑎2 2 + 𝑎3 2
1 1 1

• cos 𝛼, cos 𝛽 , cos 𝛾 are called the direction cosines of 𝐚.

• The direction angle of 𝐚 (or of line OA) are the angle 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 (0 ≤ 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ≤ 𝜋) between 𝐚
and the positive x, y, z axes.
• Note that cos2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos2 𝛾 = 1.

Example 1.19

Determine the direction cosines and direction angles 𝐚 = 〈2,1, −4〉.

|𝐚| = √22 + 12 + (−4)2 = √4 + 1 + 16 = √21

The direction cosines and angles are then,

2 1 −4
cos 𝛼 = , cos 𝛽 = , cos 𝛾 =
√21 √21 √21
𝛼 = 1.119 rad or 64.123° , 𝛽 = 1.351 rad or77.396° 𝛾 = 2.632 rad or 150.794°

17
Equation Line and Planes
Vector equation of a line 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )
a • 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
•
r
r0
L

The line v

O
Figure 24

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point on L and let r0 and r be the position vectors of 𝑃0 and 𝑃
( that is, they have representations ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃0 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃).

If a is the vector representation ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑃0 𝑃 as in figure, then the triangle law for vector addition
gives 𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝐚.

But since a and v are parallel vectors, there is a scalar t (𝑡𝜖ℝ) such that 𝐚 = 𝑡𝐯. Thus
𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯

which is a vector equation of line L.

Vector v gives the direction of the line L is written in component form as 𝐯 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉, and
we have 𝑡𝐯 = 〈𝑡𝑎, 𝑡𝑏, 𝑡𝑐〉, 𝐫 = 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉, 𝐫𝟎 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉

𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯
𝑥 𝑥0 𝑎 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎
[𝑦] = [𝑦0 ] + 𝑡 [𝑏 ] = [𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏 ]
𝑧 𝑧0 𝑐 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐

Parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐

𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑧−𝑧0

Cartesian Equations 𝑡= 𝑎
= 𝑏
= 𝑐

Example 1.20: (Equations of a line with a given direction)

(a) Find a vector equation and parametric equations for the line that passes through the
point (5,1,3) and is parallel to the vector 𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤.

(b) Find two other points on the line.

18
 Solution:
z

L
𝐫𝟎
(5,1,3)•
y
𝐯 = 𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤

x
Figure 25

(a) 𝐫𝟎 = 〈5,1,3〉 = 5𝐢 + 𝐣 + 3𝐤 and 𝐯 = 𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤, so vector equation becomes

𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯
𝐫 = 5𝐢 + 𝐣 + 3𝐤 + 𝑡(𝐢 + 4𝐣 − 2𝐤) = (5 + t)𝐢 + (1 + 4t)𝐣 + (3 − 2t)𝐤
(b) Choosing the parameter value t = 1 gives x = 6, y = 5, and z = 1, so (6, 5, 1) is a point
on the line. Similarly, t = -1, gives the point (4, -3, 5).

Note that the vector equation and parametric equations of a line are not unique. If we change
the point or the parameter or choose a different parallel vector, then the equations change.

In general, if a vector 𝐯 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is used to describe the direction of a line L, then the
number a, b, and c are called direction numbers of L.

𝑦−𝑦0 𝑧−𝑧0
If a = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , = , this means that L lies in the vertical plane 𝑥 = 𝑥0 .
𝑏 𝑐

Example 1.21 (Equations of a line through two points)

(a) Find parametric equations and Cartesian equations of the line that passes through the
points 𝐴(2,4, −3) and 𝐵(3, −1,1).
(b) At what point does this line intersect the xy-plane?

Solution:
(a) 𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −< 2,4, −3 > +< 3, −1,1 >
𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝐵
=< −2 + 3, −4 − 1,3 + 1 >=< 1, −5,4 >

The direction numbers are a = 1, b = -5, c = 4. Taking the point (2, 4, -3) as P0, the
parametric equations are:
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎 = 2 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏 = 4 − 5𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐 = −3 + 4𝑡

And Cartesian equations:

𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑥−2 𝑦−4 𝑧+3
= = => = = .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 1 −5 4

19
(b) The line intersect on xy-plane when z = 0
𝑥−2 𝑦−4 0+3 3
=> = = =
1 −5 4 4
𝑥−2 3 3 3 11
= ==> 𝑥 − 2 = ==> 𝑥 = 2 + =
1 4 4 4 4
𝑦−4 3 15 1
= ==> 𝑦 − 4 = − ==> 𝑦 =
−5 4 4 4
11 1
So the line interests the xy-plane at the point ( 4 , 4 , 0).

Example 1.22:

Show that the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 with parametric equations

𝑥 = 1+𝑡 𝑦 = −2 + 3𝑡 𝑧 = 4−𝑡
𝑥 = 2𝑠 𝑦 = 3+𝑠 𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑠
are skew lines; that is they do not intersect and are not parallel ( and therefore do not lie in the
same plane).

Solution:

The lines are not parallel because the corresponding vectors < 1,3, −1 > and < 2,1,4 > are
not parallel.(Their component are not proportional).

If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 had a point of intersection, there would be values of t and s such that
1 + 𝑡 = 2𝑠
−2 + 3𝑡 = 3 + 𝑠
4 − 𝑡 = −3 + 4𝑠

11 8
But if we solve the first two equations, we get 𝑡 = and 𝑠 = 5, and these value don’t satisfy
5
the third equation. Therefore there are no values of t and s that satisfy the three equations, so
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 do not intersect. Thus 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are skew lines.
z

5
𝐿2
𝐿1

5
5 10
y
x -5

Figure 26
20
Vector equation of a plane

To obtain the equation of a plane, we use the result that the line joining any two points in the
plane is perpendicular to the normal to the plane as illustrated in figure. The vector n is
perpendicular to the plane, a is the position vector of given point A in the plane and r is the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐫 − 𝐚 is perpendicular to n, and
position vector of any point P on the plane. The vector 𝐴𝑃
hence
(𝐫 − 𝐚) ∙ 𝐧 = 0

which can written as

𝐫∙𝐧=𝐚∙𝐧

Either one of the equation is called a vector equation of the plane.

z

n
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
•
𝐫−𝐚
r
• 𝐴(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )
𝐚
O
x y
Figure 27

To obtain a scalar equation for the plane, we write 𝐧 =< 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 >, 𝐫 =< 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 > and 𝐚 =
< 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 >. Then the vector equation becomes

< 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 >∙< 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 >= 0

𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏( 𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

This equation is the scalar equation of the plane through 𝐴(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) with normal vector
𝐧 =< 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 >.

21
Example 1.23:

Find an equation of the plane through the point (2,4, −1) with normal vector 𝒏 =< 2,3,4 >.

Solution:
Let 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑐 = 4, 𝑥0 = 2, 𝑦0 = 4 , 𝑧0 = −1, the equation of the plane is
2(𝑥 − 2) + 3(𝑦 − 4) + 4(𝑧 + 1) = 0
Or 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 12

From previous equation, we can rewrite the equation of a plane as

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
Where 𝑑 = −(𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 ). This equation is called a linear equation in x, y and z.

Example 1.24: (The plane through three points)

Find an equation of the plane that passed through the points 𝑃(1,3,2), 𝑄(3, −1,6) and
𝑅(5,2,0).

Solution:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑃𝑅
The vectors a and b corresponding to 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are
𝐚 =< 2, −4,4 >, 𝐛 =< 4, −1, −2 >

Since both a and b lie in the plane, their cross product 𝐚 × 𝐛 is orthogonal to the plane and
can be taken as the normal vector. Thus
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝐧 = 𝐚 × 𝐛 = |2 −4 4 | = 12𝐢 + 20𝐣 + 14𝐤
4 −1 −2

With the point P(1, 3, 2) and the normal vector n, an equation of the plane is
12(𝑥 − 1) + 20(𝑦 − 3) + 14(𝑧 − 2) = 0
6𝑥 + 10𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 50
z
𝑄(3, −1,6)
•

• 𝑃(1,3,2)

x • y
𝑅(5,2,0)
Figure 28
22
Example 1.25:

Find the point at which the line with parametric equations 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡, 𝑦 = −4𝑡, 𝑧 = 5 + 𝑡
intersects the plane 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 18.

Solution:
Substitute the expressions for x, y and z from the parametric equations into the equation of the
plane:
4(2 + 3𝑡) + 5(−4𝑡) − 2(5 + 𝑡) = 18
−10𝑡 = 20
𝑡 = −2
When 𝑡 = −2,
𝑥 = 2 + 3(−2) = −4
𝑦 = −4(−2) = 8
𝑧 = 5 + (−2) = 3

Hence, the point of intersection is (-4, 8, 3).

The intersecting line between planes

Figure 29

• The direction of the line is n  n .

~1 ~2

• One of the common points of both planes is also a point on the line.
• For common point, we need to solve the two equations of the planes simultaneously.

Example 1.26:

Write the parametric equations of the line of intersection of the planes − 5 x + 11y + z = 34
and − 2 x + 4 y + z = 9 .

23
Solution:

 1 : −5x + 11y + z = 34
 2 : −2 x + 4 y + z = 9
Or
 − 5
 1 : r   11  = 34
~
 1 
 − 2
 2 : r   4  = 9
~
 1 
The intersecting line, r = a +  b
~ ~ ~

b = n n
~ ~1 ~2

i j k
~ ~ ~ 11 1 − 5 1 − 5 11
= − 5 11 1 = i− j+ k
4 1~ −2 1 ~ −2 4 ~
−2 4 1
= (11 − 4) i − (− 5 + 2) j + (− 20 + 22) k
~ ~ ~

= 7 i + 3 j+ 2 k
~ ~ ~

To get the common point, set y = 0 :

− 5 x + z = 34 − − − − − (1)
− 2 x + z = 9 − − − − − (2)
(2) – (1) :
3x = −25
25
x=−
3
z = 9 + 2x
 25  23
= 9 + 2 −  = −
 3  3
 25 23 
Common point is  − ,0,− .
 3 3

 25 
− 3  7 
The intersecting line, r = a +  b = 0 +  3.
 
~ ~ ~  23   
−  2
 3 

24
Example 1.27: (Angle between planes; line of intersection of planes)

(a) Find the angle between the planes 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 and 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1.

(b) Find symmetric equations for the line and of intersection L of these two planes.

Solution:

(a) The normal vectors of these planes are

𝐧1 =< 1,1,1 > 𝐧2 =< 1, −2,3 >
So, if 𝜃 is the angle between the planes,
𝐧1 ∙ 𝐧2 1(1) + 1(−2) + 1(3) 2
cos𝜃 = = =
|𝐧1 ||𝐧2 | √1 + 1 + 1√1 + 4 + 9 √42
2
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) ≈ 72°
√42

(b) First find a point on L. We can find the point where the line intersects the xy-plane by
setting z = 0 in the equations of both planes.

When z = 0,
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 1.

Solve it will get 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0. So the common point (1, 0 , 0) lies on L.

Observe that since L lies in both planes, it is perpendicular to both of the normal vectors.
Thus a vector v parallel to L is given by the cross product
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝐯 = 𝐧1 × 𝐧2 = |1 1 1| = 5𝐢 − 2𝐣 − 3𝐤
1 −2 3

And so the symmetric equation of L can be written as

𝑥−1 𝑦 𝑧
= =
5 −2 −3

Distance from a point P to a plane

The distance D from a point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) to the plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given as

|𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑|
𝐷=
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

25
Example 1.28: (Distance between a Point and a Plane)
Find the distance D between the point (1, -4, -3) and the plane 2 x − 3 y + 6 z = −1 .

Solution:
2(1) + (−3)(−4) + 6(−3) + 1 −3 3
D= = = .
2 + (−3) + 6
2 2 2 7 7

Example 1.29: (Distance between two parallel planes)

Find the distance between the parallel planes 10𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5 and 5𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1.

Solution:
Note that the planes are parallel because their normal vectors < 10, 2, -2 > and < 5, 1, -1 > are
parallel.

To find the distance D between the planes, we choose any point on one plane and calculate its
distance to the other plane.

1
Now we choose any point from plane 10𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5, i.e. y = z = 0, so 10 x = 5, 𝑥 = 2
1
|5 (2) + 1(0) + (−1)(0) − 1| √3
𝐷= =
√52 + 12 + (−1)2 6

Example1.30: (Distance between two skew lines)

In previous example, we showed that the lines
𝐿1 : 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡 𝑦 = −2 + 3𝑡 𝑧 = 4−𝑡
𝐿2 : 𝑥 = 2𝑠 𝑦 = 3+𝑠 𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑠
are skew. Find the distance between them.

Solution:
Since the two lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are skew, they can be viewed as lying on two parallel 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 .

The distance between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is the same distance between 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 , which can computed
as previous example.

The common normal vector to both planes must be orthogonal to both 𝐯1 =< 1,3, −1 > (the
direction of 𝐿1 ) and 𝐯2 =< 2,1,4 > (the direction of 𝐿2 ). So a normal vector is
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝐧 = 𝐯1 × 𝐯2 = |1 3 −1| = 13𝐢 − 6𝐣 − 5𝐤
2 1 4

26
If we put s = 0 in the equations of 𝐿2 , we get the point (0, 3, -3) on 𝐿2 and so an equation for
𝑃2 is

13(𝑥 − 0) − 6(𝑦 − 3) − 5(𝑧 + 3) = 0 or 13𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 3 = 0

If set t = 0 in the equations for 𝐿1 , will get the point (1,-2, 4) on 𝑃1 . So the distance between
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is the same distance from (1,-2, 4) to 13𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 3 = 0.

Hence |13(1) − 6(−2) − 5(4) + 3| 8

𝐷= = ≈ 0.53
√132 + (−6)2 + (−5)2 √230

Example1.31: (Shortest Distance between two skew lines)

v
A ~1

l1

n
l2
B v
~2
Figure 30

i) Find the cross product of the direction v and v .

~1 ~2

ii) Choose points C and D, one on l1 and l2.

iii) Find the length of the projection of CD on the vector found in i) – (a multiple of AB)
CD  AB
iv) This would be the required distance, d =
AB

27
Find the shortest distance between two skew lines:
l1 : r = 2,1,2 + s − 9,−2,2
~

l 2 : r = 7,2,−2 + t − 15,−4,2
~

AB = v  v
~1 ~2

= − 9,−2,2  − 15,−4,2
i j k
~ ~
−2 2
~ −9 2 −9 −2
= −9 −2 2 = i− j+ k
− 4 2 ~ − 15 2 ~ − 15 − 4 ~
− 15 − 4 2
= (−4 + 8) i − (−18 + 30) j + (36 − 30) k
~ ~ ~

= 4 i − 12 j + 6 k
~ ~ ~

AB = 4 2 + (−12) 2 + 6 2 = 16 + 144 + 36 = 196 = 14

Let C(2, 1,2) and D(7, 2, -2), then
CD = CO + OD = − 2,1,2 + 7,2,−2 = 5,1,−4
CD  AB 5,1,−4  4,−12,6 20 + (−12) + (−24) − 16 16 8
d= = = = = = .
AB 14 14 14 14 7

Example1.32: (Shortest Distance from a point to line)

d
 b
~

A
Figure 31

AQ  b = AQ b sin 
~ ~

From the diagram above, we obtain:

d
sin  =
AQ

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 d
 AQ  b = AQ b sin  = AQ b
~ ~ ~
AQ

AQ  b
~
d =
b
~

Find the shortest distance from the point Q(1, 5, 1) to the line r = 0,5,2 + t 1,−2,1 .
~

Solution:
AQ = AO + OQ = − 0,5,2 + 1,5,1 = 1,0,−1
AQ  b = 1,0,−1  1,−2,1
~

i j k
~ ~
0 −1 1 −1
~ 1 0
= 1 0 −1 = i− j+ k
−2 1 ~ 1 1 ~ 1 −2 ~
1 −2 1
= (0 − 2) i − (1 + 1) j + (−2 − 0) k
~ ~ ~

= −2 i − 2 j − 2 k
~ ~ ~

AQ  b (−2) 2 + (−2) 2 + (−2) 2 12 12

~
d= = = = = 2.
b 1 + (−2) + 1
2 2 2
6 6
~

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