Section 5

Cardiorespiratory Fitness
Training
 FITTE-VP stands for “frequency, intensity, type, time,
enjoyment, volume, and progression.
Frequency
The number of training sessions in a given timeframe.

Intensity
The level of demand placed on the body by a given activity.

METHODS FOR ASSIGNING EXERCISE INTENSITY

VO2max
The traditional gold standard measurement for cardiorespiratory
fitness is VO2max
the maximal volume of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body
weight per minute (mL/kg per min).
MAXIMAL HEART RATE
Tanaka formula
A mathematical formula used to estimate an individual’s maximal
heart rate: 208 – (0.7 × age).
Haskell’s 220 – age formula
Target heart rate
A predetermined exercising heart rate.

HEART RATE RESERVE

Karvonen method
[(HRmax – HRrest) × desired intensity] + HRrest = Target heart rate
METABOLIC EQUIVALENT
he equivalent of the average resting metabolic rate for adults
There are many resources available for fitness professionals that
describe common activities and their average MET values. However,
this method is an uncommon practice within a fitness facility.
RATINGS OF PERCEIVED EXERTION METHOD
RPE is a technique used to validate how hard a client feels they are
working during exercise. When using the RPE method, a person is
subjectively rating the perceived difficulty of exercise and is based
on the physical sensations, such as increased heart rate, increased
respiration rate, increased sweating, and muscle fatigue.
There are two versions of RPE: the original 6 to 20 scale and the
newer 1 to 10 scale
The reason behind the 6 to 20 scale is that each value corresponds
to a heart rate, and most adult heart rates range between 60 bpm
and 200 bpm.

talk test
An aerobic test that measures the participant’s ability to talk or hold
a conversation during an activity at various intensity levels.

Ventilatory threshold (Tvent)

The point during graded exercise in which ventilation increases
disproportionately to oxygen uptake, signifying a switch from
predominately aerobic energy production to anaerobic energy
production.

Ventilatory threshold 1 (VT1)

The point at which the body uses an equal mix of carbohydrate and
fat as fuel sources.
INTERVAL TRAINING

his training format involves brief periods of higher exertion efforts

coupled with lower-intensity periods. The exertion efforts (i.e.,
intervals) can be moderate to highly intense, depending on the
goals, needs, and abilities of the client.
Work-to-rest ratios can be calculated and altered to change the
stress applied during each workout. Generally, ratios ranging from
1:1 to 1:5
Overtraining
Excessive frequency, volume, or intensity of training, resulting in
reduction of performance, which is also caused by a lack of proper
rest and recovery.
High-intensity interval training (HIIT)
An exercise training method defined by intervals of near-maximal
intensity broken up by relatively short rest period
aids in weight loss and reduction of cholesterol levels and blood
pressure
When designing HIIT training programs, recognize that “effort” is a subjective
measure (e.g., how hard I am pushing myself), whereas “intensity” is an
objective measure (e.g., sprint time, load lifted), and they are not the same. If
a workout does not provide adequate recovery between intervals, then the
intensity of the workout has to decrease, even if the individual’s effort is at a
maximum.
TABATA TRAINING
Tabata is a type of HIIT training and was created by a Japanese
scientist named Dr. Izumo Tabata
The Tabata format involves performing a maximal effort interval
lasting 20 seconds, followed by only 10 seconds of rest.
The client performs a total of eight intervals, for a total of 4
minutes.
This format has been shown to improve aerobic power and
improvements in VO2max .
Steady-state (SS) aerobic exercise
Aerobic exercise that remains at a relatively constant intensity,
including a stable heart rate and oxygen consumption.
FARTLEK TRAINING
Fartlek is a Swedish term that translates to “speed play.” The goals
of fartlek training are highly variable, targeting many different
physiological systems (i.e., aerobic and anaerobic) by combining
different formats into one workout.

Volume
The total amount of work performed in each timeframe, typically 1
week.
However, 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity may
only provide modest weight loss. Individuals who are seeking to lose
weight will likely achieve greater benefits from the inclusion of more
than 250 minutes of aerobic exercise per week
Nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)
Energy expenditure through daily activities outside of structured
exercise, such as walking, completing household chores, and taking
the stairs.
Progression
The way an exercise program advances in intensity and/or volume
to continually challenge the individual.
A gradual increase of exercise volume (<10% per week) appears to
be a safe protocol for most apparently healthy adults. This approach
may also increase adherence to the exercise program because the
exerciser feels competent to perform the work and complete the
program.
FLEXIBILITY TRAINING DURING Cardio PERIOD
TRAINING TIP
Regardless of the goal, always begin an exercise program with
posture and movement assessments, such as the overhead squat,
pushing, pulling, and single-leg squat tests (discussed in Chapter
12). These assessments help determine the muscles that need to be
stretched during a warm-up. If a muscle is overactive, it may be
impeding or altering proper movement and as such needs to be
corrected to enhance movement.

1. When used in a warm-up, stretching techniques should only be used on

areas that the assessments have determined are overactive.
2. During the cool-down, self-myofascial techniques and static stretching
should be used to return muscles to normal resting lengths. Clients should
focus on identified overactive muscles and/or the major muscles used
during the workout.
Principle of specificity
A principle stating that the body will adapt to the specific demands
that are placed on it; also known as the Specific Adaptations to
Imposed Demands (SAID) principle.
STAGE 1
Cardiorespiratory exercise in stage 1 is beneficial for those new to
exercise who are seeking to improve health markers, such as
reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes
Stage 1 is designed to help improve cardiorespiratory fitness levels
in apparently healthy sedentary clients using a target intensity
below ventilatory threshold 1 (VT1) and involves steady-state
aerobic exercise.
Clients who can maintain a zone 1 intensity for at least 30 minutes
three times per week will be ready for stage 2.
this stage may serve as a motivation tool to help clients adhere to a
physically active lifestyle, because clients are more likely to
continue with an exercise program that is moderately difficult yet
achievable.
STAGE 2
Stage 2 is ideal for fitness enthusiasts who regularly engage in
physical activity or recreational sport or for those seeking further
improvements in cardiovascular endurance or weight loss.
Stage 2 is the introduction to aerobic interval training in which
intensities are varied throughout the workout.
A stage 2 workout consists of a mix of recovery intervals just below
VT1 (or a score of “moderate to challenging” when using RPE) and
work intervals performed at an intensity just above VT1 (or a score
of “challenging to hard” when using RPE). Interval training in this
manner will likely improve both physical fitness (e.g., increased
VO2max) and health markers, such as reducing the risk of
cardiovascular disease
EXAMPLE STAGE 2 AEROBIC INTERVAL PROGRAM
Stage 2 exercise programs should be individualized and tailored to
meet the needs and goals of the client. Following is one example of
a stage 2 cardiorespiratory program (Figure 15-2):

1. Start by warming up for 5–10 minutes.

2. Move into a 1-minute interval in zone 2 that is just above VT1.
3. After the 1-minute interval, return to zone 1 for 3 minutes.
4. Repeat these intervals until the duration of the exercise
session is complete.
5. Cool down for 5–10 minutes.

STAGE 2 STEADY-STATE AEROBIC EXERCISE

1. Start by warming up for 5–10 minutes in zone 1.

2. Increase intensity (e.g., speed, incline) until client reaches
zone 2, which is just above VT1.
 3. Continue the duration of the exercise session at this intensity.
4. Cool down in zone 1 for 5–10 minutes.

For most weight-loss clients and those new to exercise, stages 1 and 2 are
most appropriate and effective for improving health and wellness and
promoting a healthy body weight. These two stages should be top priority for
the average exerciser and gym goer.

Stages 3 through 5 are most appropriate for athletes and advanced fitness
enthusiasts who are seeking greater improvements in cardiorespiratory
conditioning and are willing to participate in high-intensity exercise. It is not
necessary for fitness professionals to implement all five stages with their
clients. Cardiorespiratory exercise should be individualized based on the
client’s needs, goals, abilities, and exercise preferences.
STAGE 3
. Stage 3 training increases the capacity of aerobic and anaerobic
energy systems and is applicable for clients seeking further
improvements in exercise capacity.

For example, if a client’s heart rate at VT1 is 145 bpm and their
heart rate at VT2 is 165 bpm, the four training zones are calculated
as follows:

 Zone 1: Less than 145 bpm

 Zone 2: 145–154 bpm (VT1 to midpoint)
 Zone 3: 155–164 bpm (midpoint to VT2)
 Zone 4: 165 bpm and higher

Midpoint
Refers to the intensity level halfway between ventilatory threshold 1
(VT1) and ventilatory threshold 2 (VT2).
EXAMPLE STAGE 3 CARDIORESPIRATORY PROGRAM
Like stage 2, stage 3 exercise programs should be individualized for
the client based on their unique goals, needs, and abilities.
Following is one example of a stage 3 program (Figure 15-4):

1. Warm up in zone 1 for up to 5–10 minutes.

2. Then, increase the workload every 60 seconds until reaching
zone 3. This will require a climb through zone 2, which may
take a couple of minutes.
3. After pushing for another minute in zone 3, decrease the
workload back to zone 2.
4. Overload the body again by performing another zone 3
interval.
5. Repeat for the desired number of intervals.
6. Cool down for 5–10 minutes.

To accurately program stage 3 intervals, measurements of VT1 and

VT2 need to be recorded. Recall, at VT1, talking becomes
challenging but not difficult for the client during aerobic activity,
whereas VT2 corresponds with an individual’s inability to speak
more than a word or two during exercise

CHAPTER 13Integrated Training and the OPT Model.3

Integrated Training Principles

[Link] in a Systematic and
Progressive Fashion
Skipping Steps Versus a Progressive and Systematic Plan

Fundamental movement patterns

Common and essential movements performed in daily life and are
involved in exercise motions within a training session

1. Squatting
2. Hip hinge
3. Pulling motions
4. Pushing motions
5. Vertical pressing

[Link] with Optimal Posture

maintaining ideal posture is a difficult challenge, especially as
people age and have developed compensatory movement patterns
and faulty static postures
to create symmetry between right/left and front/back sides of the
body
[Link] for Optimal Range of Motion
Range of motion (ROM)
The degree to which specific joints or body segments can move;
often measured in degrees.

As a consequence, ROM at certain joints can become restricted,

which limits movement and may lead to injury. For example,
limitations in hip mobility have been implicated in hip, spine, and
lower extremity dysfunction
[Link] in All Planes of Motion
The advantage to the body working in all three planes of motion is
the enhancement of muscle recruitment.
For example, the posterior fibers of the gluteus medius
concentrically perform hip abduction and hip external rotation
(Figure 13-2). As such, to effectively target all muscle fibers of the
gluteus medius, the client must perform a variety of movements at
the hips (abduction, external rotation).
[Link] Variables of Training
include repetitions, sets, training intensity, repetition tempo, rest
intervals, training volume, training frequency, training duration,
exercise selection, and exercise order.

Integrated Training Concepts

Flexibility Training
Benefits of Flexibility Training
Increased joint ROM
Possible decrease in muscle soreness
Potential for a reduction in injury risk

Cardiorespiratory Training
Benefits of Cardiorespiratory Training
Decreased resting heart rate and blood pressure
Increased stroke volume and cardiac output
Improved gas exchange, decreased airway resistance, and improved oxygen uptake
Decreased blood flow resistance and increased blood volume
Improved blood lipid profile/chemistry
Improved blood flow back to the heart via veins

Core Training
Benefits of Core Training
Enhanced posture and spinal health
Better bodily function for activities of daily living and on-the-job movements
Increased balance, stabilization, and coordination of the kinetic chain
Minimized or resolved low-back pain conditions or symptoms
Improved skill-related movements and power (i.e., swinging a racket or golf club)

Balance Training
Benefits of Balance Training
Reduced risk of falls
Reduced risk of ankle sprains
Improvements in landing mechanics (which may reduce risk of anterior cruciate ligament injury)
 Improvements in lower-extremity muscular strength
Improvements in proprioception and body awareness
Improvements in agility-based outcomes in athletes
Stronger hip musculature (e.g., gluteal complex) and lower extremities

Plyometric (Reactive) Training

Benefits of Plyometric Training
Increased bone mineral density and decreased risk of bone/joint injuries
Improved soft tissue (ligaments, tendons, cartilage) strength and decreased risk of injury
Increased metabolic expenditure for improved weight management and/or weight loss
Increased strength and power for athletes and general population
Improved muscle contractions and nervous system synchronization
Improved performance or game play for athletes of all levels

Speed, Agility, and Quickness Training

Benefits of SAQ Training
Improved performance for top speed, change of direction, and rate of acceleration/deceleration
Improved health-related physical fitness
Enhanced response time to a stimulus or better reaction time
Improved technical skills in sprinting and change of direction mechanics

Resistance Training
Benefits of Resistance Training
Increased endurance, strength, and power
Increased muscular hypertrophy
Improved weight management and enhanced weight-loss efforts
Improved resting metabolic rate, resting heart rate, and blood pressure
Improved coordination and athleticism
Decreased risk of injury due to strength of all soft tissues (ligaments, tendons, cartilage, and muscle

The Optimum Performance

Training® Model

Stabilization
 Improving movement patterns and exercise technique
 Improving muscle imbalances
 Improving joint ROM and flexibility
 Improving stabilization of the core musculature and peripheral joints
 Preventing tissue overload by preparing muscles, tendons,
ligaments, and joints for the upcoming imposed demands of training
 Improving overall cardiorespiratory conditioning

Strength
PHASE 2 STRENGTH ENDURANCE TRAINING
the goal is to enhance stabilization endurance while increasing
prime mover strength. These two adaptations are accomplished by
performing two exercises in a superset sequence, back-to-back
without rest, with similar joint dynamics .
The first exercise is a traditional strength exercise performed in a
stable environment (such as a bench press), whereas the second
exercise is a stabilization-focused exercise performed in a less
stable (yet controllable) environment (such as a stability ball push-
up)
.The principle behind this method is to predominantly work the
prime movers in the first exercise to elicit prime mover strength.
This is immediately followed with an exercise that challenges
stability and postural control. This produces an increase in muscular
endurance, joint stability, and ideal posture.

PHASE 3 MUSCULAR DEVELOPMENT TRAINING

This form of training can also benefit those seeking to lose body fat
while maintaining lean muscle mass
Because the goal of this phase of training is primarily muscular
hypertrophy, the fitness professional will want to increase the
volume (lots of sets) and intensity (using moderate to heavy weight)
of the program
This phase is optional depending on the goals of the client, because
some clients do not wish to achieve high levels of muscular growth,
such as endurance athletes.

PHASE 4 MAXIMAL STRENGTH TRAINING

Phase 4 Maximal Strength Training works toward the goal of
maximal prime mover strength by lifting heavy loads
This phase of training is common for strength athletes, such as
those who compete in powerlifting or strongman competitions and
others who require maximal strength (i.e., shot-putters, rugby
athletes, American football linemen).

PHASE 5 POWER TRAINING

The goal of Phase 5 Power Training is to increase maximal strength
and rate of force production.
Rate of force production
Ability of muscles to exert maximal force output in a minimal
amount of time.

This phase of training is important for improving velocity of

movement and athleticism.
this phase of training is the execution of a traditional strength
exercise (with a heavy load) superset with a power-focused (high-
velocity) exercise of similar joint dynamics
This form of training, also known as complex training, has been
shown to improve sprint and vertical jump performance

Note:
SAID principle
This principle requires specific movements to create specific
changes.

parts of the body is not subject to increases in density through

resistance training
Soft tissue

Added balance creates bilateral and unilateral enhancement to

enhance core stabilization.

CHAPTER 21The Optimum Performance Training Model

 To assist in this process, fitness professionals must be able to
answer specific questions that are related to the appropriateness of
exercise programming:

 What are my client’s needs, goals, and abilities?

 Does my client have any concerns or contraindications for exercise
due to previous injuries or medical conditions?

 What are the results from my client’s fitness assessment? Does my

client exhibit muscle imbalances, poor posture, or limited mobility?
 Which forms of exercise does my client like and dislike? Am I
integrating liked exercises for my client to foster a positive
environment?
 What exercise variables, such as sets, repetitions, or rest periods,
should I use that best match my client’s abilities, goals, and phase
of training?
 What exercise modalities, such as free weights, elastic bands, or
machines, are appropriate for my client based on my client’s goals
and fitness level?
 What is the appropriate frequency (days per week) and duration
(time per session) of exercise sessions that should be used?

Kinetic chain
A concept that describes the human body as a chain of
interdependent links that work together to perform movement.

“iceberg effect”
For example, exercise programs may overemphasize particular
factors, such as expending maximal calories for fat-loss goals or the
development of speed and power to improve athletic performance.
However, a well-rounded exercise program must be progressive and
systematic and consider many variables, such as teaching proper
movement patterns, improving mobility and stability of the kinetic
chain, enhancing muscular and aerobic endurance, and reducing
the likelihood of injury. In other words, exercise programming
involves more than what we see at the surface, such as reducing
body fat, gaining muscle mass, or increasing strength and power
Periodization
Macromanagement or planned manipulation of training variables in
an organized fashion to improve performance over time.

Periodization involves two primary objectives:

1. Dividing the training program into distinct periods (or phases)

of training: annual training plan (macrocycle), monthly
training plan (mesocycle), and weekly or daily training plan
(microcycle)
2. Training different forms of strength in each period (or phase)
to control training volume and to prevent injury

Linear periodization
A traditional method of program design that aims to gradually
increase the intensity of the training load while simultaneously
decreasing volume over a set period of time.
 Undulating periodization
A programming scheme, also known as nonlinear periodization, that
uses changes in volume, intensity, and exercise selection to provide
loading differences on a daily or weekly basis.

Summary Chart of OPT Model

Activities of daily living (ADL)

The fundamental tasks needed to manage basic self-care activities, such as
bathing, dressing, grooming, meal preparation and feeding, and homemaking.

Squat
Proper squatting techniques include the following:

 Keeping the feet straight ahead and avoiding overpronation of the

foot and ankle complex
 Tracking the knees over the second and third toes; do not allow the
knees to cave inward (known as knee valgus)
 Ensuring a neutral pelvis and spine
 Equally flexing at the ankles and hips; keep the torso and shin
angles parallel, which provides equal weight distribution between
the ankles, knees, and hips
 Maintaining head and shoulders in a neutral position

HIP HINGE
The hip hinge requires an individual to perform hip flexion and
extension from a standing position with relatively little motion
through the knees or ankles, like a kettlebell swing
Most of the motion comes from the hips; however, this is different
from spinal flexion, which involves rounding the spine
into kyphosis, also known as a hunchback posture.

Kyphotic/Kyphosis
The normal curvature of the thoracic spine region, creating a convex
portion of the spine.

PULLING MOTION
 PUSHING MOTION

PRESSING

To recap, Phase 1 Stabilization Endurance Training focuses on the

following:

 Teaching ideal movement patterns and exercise skills

 Increasing flexibility and joint mobility
 Correcting identified muscle imbalances based on assessment
results
 Increasing joint and core stability
 Improving muscular endurance and aerobic capacity
 Enhancing proprioception, balance, and overall coordination
 Promoting client confidence and adherence to exercise

STABILIZATION LEVEL ACTIVATION

Choose between one and four core exercises with a repetition range
of 12 to 20 and one to three sets. Using a low volume of core
exercises helps promote muscle activation and prepares the body
for further work without inducing undue muscular fatigue or
exhaustion.
TRAINING TIP
Core exercises that emphasize core stabilization and intervertebral
stability typically involve little motion of the spine. Examples include
(but are not limited to) marching, floor bridge, ball bridge, floor
prone cobra, ball cobra, plank, side plank, bird dog, Pallof press, and
dead bugs.
Intervertebral stability
Stability and support of individual spine segments.