Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3122)

Chapter One

Introduction to network analysis and synthesis

1.1. Basic definitions and representation of networks

In generally accepted definitions of network analysis and synthesis, there are three key

words: the excitation, the network, and the response as depicted in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Block diagram representation of electrical network systems

Definitions:

 Excitation – source of electrical energy to be connected to the network.

 An electrical network is a combination/interconnection of electrical elements

such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage sources,

current sources, and switches, connected in any manner to perform a certain task

governed by certain laws.

 Response – output signal produced by the network in response to the input

(excitation).

For electrical networks, the excitation and response are given in terms of voltages and

currents which are functions of time, 𝑡. In general, these functions of time are called

signals. In describing signals, we use the two universal languages of electrical

engineering- time and frequency. Strictly speaking, a signal is a function of time.

However, the signal can be described equally well in terms of spectral or frequency

information. The translation between time and frequency domain representations are

affected by Fourier series, Fourier integral and Laplace transform.

To mention some examples of networks:

 Filters − electrical networks which pass selective frequency signals.

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 Amplifiers/ Attenuators − electrical networks which are used to magnify or

reduce signal power level from input to output.

 Equalizers − electrical networks used to counteract frequency or phase

distortions.

 Matching networks − electrical networks that match source and load

impedances.

1.1.2. Definitions of Analysis and synthesis

Network Analysis

If the network and the excitation are given, and the problem is to find current or voltage

through/across elements of the network or to find their relation with other voltages or

currents, the process to find the solution is called network analysis.

 Consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of time and frequency and

determining how the network behaves as a signal processor

 Concerned with determining the response, given the excitation and the network

 In this process there is always one and only one solution

Network synthesis

If the input and the output are given explicitly or implicitly (in the form of a function

relating the two) and the problem is to create a network that meets the given

specifications, the procedure followed is called network synthesis.

 Here the problem is to design/synthesize the network from the system function
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) given the excitation 𝐸(𝑠) and the desired response 𝑅(𝑠)

 In this kind of process there may not be a solution (unrealizable specifications);

otherwise if a solution exists, there will be several (precisely infinite) equivalent

solutions (networks).

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1.1.3. Network components

Electrical network (Circuit) components (elements) can be classified according to

different properties.

Active and passive elements:

 Passive elements are those that have no energy sources. This includes resistors,

inductors, capacitors and coupled inductors (transformers)

 Active elements are dependent sources, transistors, op-amps etc. There are

separate energy sources in these elements, without which they cannot function.

Linear and non-linear elements:

A system is linear if superposition theorem holds true for the input-output relationship

If 𝑥1 → 𝑦1

and 𝑥2 → 𝑦2

then 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2 → 𝑎𝑦1 + 𝑏𝑦2

Fig. 1.2: Linear systems

Similarly, linear elements are those that have a linear response (current or voltage) to

the input (voltage or current); or elements that have linear relationship between current

and voltage through/across them.

Distributed and Lumped Parameter elements:

Unlike lumped parameter elements, many network elements have electrical properties

(Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance) in a distributed manner in space (say, a

transmission line or a rheostat).

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A transmission line between a generating station and the load has inductance (due to

the magnetic field set up by the current) and capacitance (between two conductors and

between conductor and ground).

When a source of energy is connected to the transmission line, energy is transported

through all the parts. However, points along the line do not have the same electrical

conditions at the same instant of time. This means that the parameters are distributed

along the line.

1.2. Representation of Ideal Elements

In the analysis of electrical networks, we use idealized linear mathematical models of

physical circuit elements. The elements most often encountered are the resistor R, given

in ohms, the capacitor C, given in farads, and the inductor L, expressed in henrys. The

endpoints of the elements are called terminals. A port is defined as a pair of terminals in

which energy is supplied or withdrawn or where network variables may be measured

or observed

The energy sources that make up the excitation functions are ideal current or voltage

sources, as shown in Figs. 1.3 a and b. The polarities indicated for the voltage sources

and the direction of flow for the current source are arbitrarily assumed for reference

purposes only. An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given

port, a voltage signal that is independent of the current at that port. If we interchange

the words “current” and “voltage” in the last definition, we then define an ideal current

source.

Fig. 1.3: (a) voltage source, (b) current source

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A dependent voltage (or current) source is a source the voltage (or current) of which

depends on another voltage (or current). A dependent or controlled source is said to be

voltage or current controlled if its terminal behavior is controlled by another voltage or

current. This leads to four different controlled sources which are:

1. Voltage-controlled voltage source

2. Voltage-controlled current source

3. Current-controlled voltage source

4. Current-controlled current source

Some physical devices operate almost like ideal dependent sources. For example, an

operational amplifier is a voltage controlled voltage source, a field effect transistor a

voltage controlled current source.

In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships that exist between

the currents and voltages at the ports of the network. Certain simple voltage-current

relationships for the network elements also serve as defining equations for the elements

themselves. For example, when the currents and voltages are expressed as functions of

time, then the R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig. 1.4, are defined by the equations
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) Or 1
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) Or 1 𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝑖(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖(0)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0
1 𝑡 or 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣(0) 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝐶 0 𝑑𝑡

where the constants of integration 𝑖(0) and 𝑣(0) are initial conditions.

Fig. 1.4: (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor (in time domain)

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Fig. 1.5: (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor (in Laplace domain)

Expressed as a function of the complex frequency variable s, the equations defining the

R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig. 1.4, are (ignoring the initial conditions for the

moment)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) Or 1
𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑅
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠) Or 1
𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿
1 Or 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉(𝑠)
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶
We see that in the time domain, i.e., where the independent variable is t, the voltage-

current relationships are given in terms of differential equations. On the other hand, in

the complex-frequency domain, the voltage-current relationships for the elements are

expressed in algebraic equations. Algebraic equations are, in most cases, more easily

solved than differential equations.

When a network is made up of an interconnection of linear circuit elements, the

network is described by its system or transfer function H(s). The response R(s) and the

excitation E(s) are related by the equation

𝑅(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)
In network analysis we are given 𝐸(𝑠), and we can obtain 𝐻(𝑠) directly from the

network. Our task is to determine 𝑅(𝑠). On the other hand for the case of network

synthesis, we are given 𝐸(𝑠) together with the desired response 𝑅(𝑠) and the problem
𝑅(𝑠)
will be to synthesize the network from the system function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠).

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Since 𝐸(𝑠) and 𝑅(𝑠) are currents or voltages, then 𝐻(𝑠) is denoted generally as an

immittance is 𝑅(𝑠) is a voltage and 𝐸(𝑠) is a current, or vise versa. A deriving point

immittance is defined to be a function for which the variables are measured at the same

port. Thus a driving-point impedance 𝑍(𝑠) at a given port is the function

𝑉(𝑠)
𝑍(𝑠) =
𝐼(𝑠)
Where the excitation is a current 𝐼(𝑠) and the response is a voltage 𝑉(𝑠). When we

interchange the words “current” and “voltage” in the last definition, we then have

driving-point admittance given as,

𝐼(𝑠)
𝑌(𝑠) =
𝑉(𝑠)
Applying those definitions for the R, L, and C elements we can get the impedance and

admittance expressions as follows,

Resistor Inductor Capacitor

Impedance 𝑅 𝑠𝐿 1
𝑠𝐶
Admittance 1 1 𝑠𝐶
𝑅 𝑠𝐿

Exercises

1. If the system function of a network is given as

1
𝐻(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
3
Find the response 𝑅(𝑠) is the excitation is 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑠

2. Given the following functions, find their simplest network realizations.

1
a) 𝑍(𝑠) = 3 + 2𝑠 + 3𝑠
3𝑠
b) 𝑌(𝑠) = 2𝑠 + 𝑠+2
𝑠
c) 𝑍(𝑠) = 3 + 𝑠2 +2
1 2𝑠
d) 𝑌(𝑠) = 3𝑠+2 + 𝑠2 +4

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3. For the network shown, write the mesh equation in-terms of (a) differential

equations and (b) the complex-frequency variable s.

Fig. 1.6

4. For the network shown in Fig. 1.7, write the node equation in-terms of (a)

differential equations and (b) the complex-frequency variable s.

Fig. 1.7

1.4. Network Theorems

In network analysis, the objective of a problem is often to determine a single branch

current through a given element or a single voltage across an element. In problems of

this kind, it is generally not practicable to write a complete set of mesh or node

equations and to solve a system of equations for this one current or voltage. It is then

convenient to use two very important theorems on equivalent circuits, known as

Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.

1.4.1. Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem states the following

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The current through, or voltage across, any element of a network is equal to the

algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source.

In other words, this theorem allows us to find a solution for a current or voltage using

only one source at a time. Once we have the solution for each source, we can combine

the results to obtain the total solution. The term algebraic appears in the above theorem

statement because the currents resulting from the sources of the network can have

different directions, just as the resulting voltages can have opposite polarities.

If we are to consider the effects of each source, the other sources obviously must be

removed. Setting a voltage source too zero volts is like placing a short circuit across its

terminals and setting a current source to zero amperes is like replacing it with an open

circuit. In both cases any internal resistance associated with the sources should remain

in the network.

1.4.2. Thevenin’s Theorem

From the standpoint of determining the current 𝐼(𝑠) through an element of

impedance 𝑍1 (𝑠), shown in Fig. 1.8 (a), the rest of the network N can be replaced by

equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) in series with an equivalent voltage source 𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) , as

depicted in Fig. 1.8 (b). The equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) is the impedance “looking into”

N from the terminals of 𝑍1 (𝑠) when all voltage sources in N are short circuited and all

current sources are open circuited. The equivalent voltage source 𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) is the voltage

which appears between the terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 1.8 (a), when the element 𝑍1 (𝑠) is

removed or open circuited.

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Fig. 1.8: (a) Network N, (b) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Example: for the network in Fig. 1.9, let us determine the voltage 𝑣0 (𝑡) across the

resistor by Thevenin’s theorem. The switch closes at 𝑡 = 0, and we assume that all initial

conditions are zero at 𝑡 = 0.

Fig. 1.9

First let us redraw the circuit in terms of its transformed representation, which is given

in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10

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We can almost determine by inspection that the Thevenin equivalent voltage source of

the network to the left of 𝑁 in Fig 1.10 is

𝑉(𝑠)(1⁄𝑠𝐶 )
𝑉𝑒 (𝑠) =
𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶

And the input impedance to the left of N is

𝑠𝐿1 (1⁄𝑠𝐶 )
𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿2 +
𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶

We know that

𝑅𝑉𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑉0 (𝑠) =
𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝑅

Therefore

𝑅𝑉(𝑠)(1⁄𝑠𝐶 )
𝑉0 (𝑠) =
(𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿2 )(𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶 ) + 𝐿1 ⁄𝐶

Finally

𝑣0 (𝑡) = 𝐿−1 (𝑉0 (𝑠))

1.4.3. Norton’s Theorem

When it is required to find the voltage across an element whose admittance is 𝑌1 (𝑠), the

rest of the network can be represented as an equivalent admittance 𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) in parallel with

an equivalent current source 𝐼𝑒 (𝑠), as shown in Fig. 1.11. The admittance 𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) is the

reciprocal of the Thevenin impedance. The current 𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) is that current which flows

through a short circuit across 𝑌1 (𝑠). From Fig. 1.10,

𝐼𝑒 (𝑠)
𝑉1 (𝑠) =
𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝑌1 (𝑠)

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Fig. 1.11

Example: in the network in Fig. 1.12, the switch closes at 𝑡 = 0. It is given that 𝑣(𝑡) =

0.1𝑒 −5𝑡 and all initial currents and voltages are zero. Let us find the current 𝑖2 (𝑡) by

Norton’s theorem.

Fig. 1.12

The transformed circuit is given in Fig. 1.13. To find the Norton equivalent current

source, we short circuit points 1 and 2 in the network shown. Then 𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) is the current

flowing in the short circuit, or

𝑉(𝑠) 0.1 1
𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) = = =
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝐿(𝑠 + 𝑅 ⁄𝐿)(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 10)

The equivalent admittance of the circuit as viewed from points 1 and 2 is

1 𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑠𝑅1 𝐶 + 1 0.5𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 10
𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶 + = =
𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝑠 + 10

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Fig. 1.13

𝐼2 (𝑠) is then

𝐼𝑒 (𝑠) 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = =
𝑅2 [𝑌𝑒 (𝑠) + 𝐺2 ] (𝑠 + 5)2 (𝑠 + 6)

By inspection, we see that 𝐼2 (𝑠) can be written as

(𝑠 + 6) − (𝑠 + 5) 1 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = 2
= 2
−
(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 6) (𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 6)(𝑠 + 5)

Repeating this procedure, we then obtain

1 1 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = 2
− +
(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 6)

Taking the inverse transform of 𝐼2 (𝑠), we finally obtain

𝑖2 (𝑡) = (𝑡𝑒 −5𝑡 − 𝑒 −5𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡)

1.4.4. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The process of finding the load that will receive maximum power from a particular

system is quite straightforward due to the maximum power transfer theorem, which

states the following:

A load will receive maximum power from a network when its load impedance is

exactly equal to the Thevenin impedance of the network applied to the load. That is,
𝑍𝐿 (𝑠) = 𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠)

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With 𝑍𝐿 (𝑠) = 𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠), the system being perfectly matched to the load and the source,

thus the power transfer becomes maximum, and this amount of power 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be

obtained by the following equation

2 2
𝑉𝑇ℎ (𝑠)𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠) 𝑉𝑇ℎ (𝑠)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
= 2
(𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠) + 𝑍𝐿 (𝑠)) 4𝑍𝑇ℎ (𝑠)
1.5. Classification of Networks

The overall behavior of an electrical network can be predicated by the constituent

element and their interconnection. The behavior of the network, considered as a black

box, leads to a number of classifications like linear, nonlinear: time-invariant and time

variant; passive, active. Also depending on the number of terminals, a network can also

be classified as 1-port, 2-port,… network.

1.5.1. Linear and Non-linear Networks

In a linear network, the relationship between the voltage and current is described by a

linear equation. Consider two networks 𝑁1 , and 𝑁2 as shown in Fig.1.14 (a) and (b)

respectively. Network (a) is made up of a linear resistor R, while (b) is made up of a

semi-conductor diode and linear resistor R. let the cut-in voltage of the diode be 0.6

volt. In network (a) current 𝐼1 is given by 𝑉/𝑅 and exists for all values of V. In network

(b) if V is less than 0.6 volt the current 𝐼2 is zero and for voltages higher than 0.6 volts 𝐼2
𝑉−0.6
is given by 𝑅+𝑅 , where 𝑅𝐹 is the forward resistance of the diode. Obviously, in network
𝐹

(a) the current response is linear in contrast to that in (b).

A system (network) is linear if the principle of superposition and (ii) the principle of

proportionality hold. By the superposition principle, if, for a given network, [𝑒1 (𝑡),

𝑟1 (𝑡), and [𝑒2 (𝑡), 𝑟2 (𝑡), are excitation response pairs, then if the excitation were e(t) =

𝑒1 (𝑡) + 𝑒2 (𝑡) the response would be r(t) = 𝑟1 (𝑡) + 𝑟2 (𝑡). By the proportionality principle,

if the excitation were 𝐶1 𝑒1 (𝑡) , where 𝐶1 is a constant, then the response would be

𝐶1 𝑟1 (𝑡)i.e. the constant proportionality 𝐶1 is preserved by the linear network. Let both

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the networks be excited by two serially connected voltage sources 𝑉1 and 𝑉2. Then it can

be seen that 𝐼1 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ) = 𝐼1 (𝑉1 ) + 𝐼2 (𝑉2 ) and 𝐼1 (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ) ≠ 𝐼1 (𝑉1 ) + 𝐼2 (𝑉2 ) .

Fig. 1.14. Linear and non-linear networks

Where 𝐼𝑖 (𝑉𝑗 ) is the current into the terminals of network 𝑁𝑖 when excited by a voltage

source 𝑉𝑗 . We say that network 𝑁1 is linear and 𝑁2 is nonlinear as the principle of

superposition holds for 𝑁1 but not for 𝑁2 .

1.5.1. Time-variant and Time-invariant Networks

A network is time invariant if 𝑒(𝑡) → 𝑟(𝑡) implies that 𝑒(𝑡 ± 𝑇) → 𝑟(𝑡 ± 𝑇), where the

symbol → means “gives rise to.” To understand the concept of time invariance in a

linear system, let us suppose that initially the excitation is introduced at 𝑡 = 0, which

gives rise to a response 𝑟(𝑡). If the excitation were introduced at 𝑡 = 𝑇, and if the shape

of the response waveform were the same as in the first case, but delayed by a time 𝑇

(Fig. 1.15), then we could say the system is time invariant. Another way of looking at

this concept is through the fact that time-invariant systems contain only elements that

do not vary with time. A network composed of time-invariant elements is necessarily

time-invariant whereas network composed of time-variant elements may exhibit time-

invariant terminal behavior.

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Fig. 1.15. Time-invariant system

1.5.3. Causal and Non-causal networks

We say a system is causal if its response is non-anticipatory, i.e.,

𝑖𝑓 𝑒(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 𝑇, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡<𝑇
In other words, a network is causal if before an excitation is applied at 𝑡 = 𝑇, the

response is zero for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑇. Otherwise the network is said to be non-causal.

1.5.4. Passive and Active Networks

Consider a network made up of a single linear resistor. The energy supplied to (or

dissipated by) the resistor, from the previous relation is

𝑡
𝑊(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = ∫ 𝑖 2 (𝑡)𝑅𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

If the resistor has to deliver power to the external world, 𝑅 has to be negative. As long

as R is positive the resistor will consume power, and such a resistor is called a passive

resistor.

Let 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡) be voltage and current at the terminals of a network. Then the energy

delivered to the network is given by

𝑡
𝑊(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) = ∫ 𝑣(𝜏)𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏
𝑡0

A network is said to be passive if, and only if, 𝑊(𝑡, 𝑡0 ) + 𝐸(𝑡0 ) ≥ 0 for all 𝑡 and 𝑡0 , and

for all 𝑣(𝑡) and 𝑖(𝑡), where 𝐸(𝑡0 ) is the energy in the network at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 . Otherwise, the

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network is said to be active. In other words, if the energy delivered to the network is

non-negative for all time and input, the network is said to be passive.

1.5.5. One-port and Two-port Network

A pair of terminals such that current entering one of the terminals is the same as current

leaving the other terminal is called port. Depending on the number of ports, networks

can be classified as 1-port, 2-port…, n-port (multi-port). One-port network is a two

terminal electrical network in which, current enters trough one terminal and leaves

through another terminal. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are the examples of one

port network because each one has two terminals. One port network representation is

shown in Fig. 1.16 below.

Fig. 1.16: One-port network

Here, the pair of terminals, 1 & 1’ represents a port. In this case, we are having only one

port since it is a one port network.

Similarly, two port networks is a pair of two terminal electrical network in which,

current enters through one terminal and leaves through another terminal of each port.

Two port network representation is shown in the following Fig. 1.17. Here, one pair of

terminals, 1 and 1’ represents one port and, which is called as port1 and the other pair

of terminals, 2 & 2’ represents another port, which is called port2. Port1 is used as an

input port and port2 is used as output port.

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Fig. 1.17: Two-port network

There are four variables 𝑉1, 𝑉2, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 in a two port network as shown in Fig. 1.17, out

of which, we can choose two variables as independent and another two variables as

dependent. So we will get six possible pairs of equations. These equations represent the

dependent variables in terms independent variables. The coefficients of independent

variables are called as parameters. So, each pair of equations will give a set of four

parameters. We will explore two port networks in Chapter 5.

Chapter Review Exercises

1. Find the deriving-point impedance and admittance functions for the following network.

Fig. 1.18

2. Obtain the differential equation relating 𝑖𝐿 and 𝑉𝑠 for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19.

Also find the expression for 𝑉𝑐 in terms of 𝑉𝑠 .

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Fig. 1.19

3. Find the current 𝐼 in the circuit of Fig. 1.20 using the following methods if the input

current 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 5𝛿(𝑡)𝐴.

A) Nodal analysis

B) Mesh analysis

Fig. 1.20

4. Use the superposition theorem to find the voltage 𝑣0 (𝑡) in the following circuit, if

the initial value of the capacitor is assumed to be zero.

Fig. 1.21

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5. Find 𝒊𝟏 (𝑡) in Fig. 1.22 below using Thevenin’s theorem. The excitation is 𝑒(𝑡) =

100 cos 20 𝑢(𝑡). Assume zero initial energy.

Fig. 1.22

6. In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.23, the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0, with the network

previously un-energized. Evaluate,

A) 𝑖1 using Thevenin’s theorem

B) 𝑖2 using Norton’s theorem

Fig. 1.23

7. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.24, what load impedance 𝑍𝐿 absorbs maximum

average power, and what is this maximum power?

Fig. 1.24
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