Mathematics in the Modern World
CHAPTER 2:
Speaking Mathematically
Mathematics in the Modern World
Variables
A variable is sometimes thought of as a
mathematical “John Doe” because you can use it as a
placeholder when you want to talk about something
but either (1) you imagine that it has one or more
values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you
want whatever you say about it to be equally true
for all elements in a given set, and so you don’t want
to be restricted to considering only a particular,
concrete value for it.
Mathematics in the Modern World
Example 1:
Sentence:
Is there a number with the following property:
doubling it and adding 3 gives the same result as
squaring it?
Solution:
Is there a number “x” with the following property:
𝟐
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 = 𝒙
Mathematics in the Modern World
Example 2:
Sentence:
No matter what number might be chosen, if it is
greater than 2, then its square is greater than 4.
Solution:
No matter what number n might be chosen, if
𝟐
𝒏 > 2, then 𝒏 > 𝟒.
Mathematics in the Modern World
3 of the Most Important Kinds of Mathematical Statements
(1) Universal statement says that a certain property is true for all
elements in a set.
E.g.: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
(2) Conditional statement says that if one thing is true then some
other thing also has to be true.
E.g.: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
(3) Given a property that may or may not be true, an existential
statement says that there is at least one thing for which the
property is true.
E.g.: There is a prime number that is even.
Mathematics in the Modern World
The Language of Sets
Use of the word set as a formal mathematical term was
introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor. For most mathematical
purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as
a collection of elements.
E.g.:
a. If C is the set of all countries that are currently in the United
Nations, then the United States is an element of C.
b. If I is the set of all integers from 1 to 100, then the number 57 is
an element of I.
Mathematics in the Modern World
Notation
If S is a set, the notation 𝒙 ∈ 𝑺 means that x is an
element is S. The notation 𝒙 ∉ 𝑺 means that x is not an
element of S.
A set may be specified using the set-roster notation by
writing all of its elements between braces. E.g.: {1, 2, 3}
A variation of the notation is sometimes used to describe a
very large set. E.g.: {1, 2, 3, …, 100}
A similar notation can also describe an infinite set.
E.g.: {1, 2, 3, …}
Mathematics in the Modern World
The symbol “…” is called an ellipsis and is read “and so forth”.
The axiom of extension says that a set is completely determined
by what its elements are, not the order in which they might be
listed or the fact that some elements might be listed more than
once.
E.g.: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 2, 1}, C = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3}
Mathematics in the Modern World
Certain sets of numbers are so frequently referred to that they are
given special symbolic names.
Symbol Set
R set of all real numbers
Z set of all integers
Q set of all rational numbers, or quotient of integers
Mathematics in the Modern World
Addition of a superscript + or – or the letters nonneg indicates
that only the positive or negative or nonnegative elements of the
set, respectively, are to be included. Thus 𝑹+ denotes the set of
positive real numbers, and 𝒁𝒏𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒈 refers to the set of
nonnegative integers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth.
Some authors refer to the set of nonnegative integers as the set of
natural numbers and denote it as N. Other authors call only the
positive integers natural numbers.
Mathematics in the Modern World
Subsets
If A and B are sets, then A is called a subset of B,
written A ⊆ B, if, and only if, every element of
A is also an element of B.
Symbolically:
A ⊆ B means that for all elements x, if x ∈ A then x ∈ B
The phrases A is contained in B and B contains A are
alternative ways of saying that A is a subset of B.
Mathematics in the Modern World
It follows from the definition of subset that for a set A not
to be a subset of a set B means that there is at least one
element of A that is not an element of B.
A ⊄ B means that there is at least one element x such that
x ∈ A and x ∉ B.
Mathematics in the Modern World
Ordered Pair
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the
ordered pair consisting of a and b together with the
specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is
the second element.
E.g.: Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if,
and only if, a = c and b = d.
(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d.
Mathematics in the Modern World
The Language of Relations
Let A = {0, 1, 2} and B = {1, 2, 3} and let us say that an element x in
A is related to and element y in B if, and only if, x is less than y.
Let us use x R y as a shorthand for the sentence “x is related to y.”
0R1 since 0 < 1,
0R2 since 0 < 2,
0R3 since 0 < 3,
1R2 since 1 < 2,
1R3 since 1 < 3, and
2R3 since 2 < 3.
Mathematics in the Modern World
On the other hand, if the notation x R y represents the sentence
“x is not related to y.”
1R1 since 1 < 1,
2R1 since 2 < 1, and
2R2 since 2 < 2.
Mathematics in the Modern World
References:
Book:
Mathematics in the Modern World
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