2024 AGRICUTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

SOLAR THERMAL
by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

Volume 2 - RENEWABLE / BIOENERGY ENGINERING

Disclaimer

Photos, illustrations and schematic diagrams of equipment or machine parts are shown in the
presentation solely for educational purposes to facilitate comprehension of the topics by the
students. Showing them does not endorse a product nor implies criticism of similar products not
mentioned.

1
 INTRODUCTION
☐ The solar radiation reaching the earth is characterized by a
relatively low density and wide dispersal.
☐ The approximate solar radiation received at the earth surface is
approximately 1 kW/m2.
☐ The global radiation is subjected to regular short- and long-term
variations which can be accounted to the changes in the weather
condition during the day and the night.
☐ Changes in weather condition are due to the following:
● Climatic condition
● Solar azimuth
● Elevation of the sun
● Rotation of the earth

2
 GLOBAL RADIATION
☐ The global radiation is subjected to
unpredictable temporal changes depending on
the following:
• Cloudiness
• Overcasting
• Shade
☐ The intensity of solar radiation decreases
as the distance from the equator increases.
☐ The proportion of the global radiation
accounted for by diffuse radiation increases
with haziness of the atmosphere and of the
solar inclination.
☐ The annual global radiation and the
duration of sunshine is about 800-
2600kWh/m2 and 1000-4000 hours,
respectively.

3
4
 Basic of Solar Energy
☐ Power density of solar radiation entering the
earth atmosphere is about 1.355 kW/m2.
☐ Average power density striking the earth
surface is about 0.89 kW/m2.
☐ Types of global radiation striking the earth
surface:
• Direct radiation
• Diffuse radiation
☐ Factors affecting the amount and intensities
of global radiation received at the earth
surface:
• Position of the sun
• Diffusion factors
• cloud scatter and adsorption
• molecules
• dust
• air pollution

5
 Direct Solar Radiation in Inclined
Surface

Qd = Qo D A Cos 

where:
Qd - direct solar radiation in an inclined
surface, kW
Qo - solar constant, kW/m2
A - absorber area, m2
D - transmission factor, dmls
 - angle between the line perpendicular to the
surface and the direction of radiation, deg

Typical Mean Values for D

Solar Elevation
Type of Terrain
90 60 30 10 5
High Mountains 0.82 0.81 0.71 0.49 0.35
Flat Country 0.77 0.74 0.61 0.35 0.22
Large City 0.69 0.66 0.51 0.24 0.12
Industrial Area 0.61 0.55 0.41 0.15 0.06

6
Proportion of Global Radiation Accounted for by Diffuse Radiation

Solar Elevation
Type of Terrain
90 60 30 10
Flat Country 8.5 15 30 46
Large City 11.5 21 40 62
Industrial Area 18.8 33 58 85

Two hundred (200) liters of water is to be heated from 30° to 80°C in

1 hour. What is the area of the tube-type solar collector required for
the heater if the collection efficiency is 80% directly oriented to the
sunlight. The average power density of the sun is 0.89 kW/m2.
Given:
Volume of water - 200 li
Temperature - 30° to 80°C
Heating time - 1 hr
Collection efficiency - 80%
Average power density - 0.89 kW/m2
Required: Collector Area
Solution:

Power required = 200 li/1 hr x 1 kg/li x 1 kcal/kg-°C x (80°C – 30°C)

= 10,000 kcal/hr x 0.0012 kW-hr/kcal
= 12 kW
Area of collector = 12 kW / (0.89 kW/m2 x 0.80)
= 16.8 m2

7
Determine the size of the flat-plate solar collector, which is
perpendicularly inclined at 11 deg to the direction of the sunlight,
required to supply thermal heat to a fruit dryer that consumes 1000 kcal
per hour of heat energy. Assume a 0.89 kW per m2 average power
density and a 0.77 transmission factor.
Given:
Angle of inclination - 11 deg
Heat required - 1,000 kcal/hr
Average power density - 0.89 kW/m2
Transmission factor - 0.77
Required: Collector Area
Solution:

A = (10,000 kcal/hr x 0.0012 kW-hr/kcal) /

(0.89 kW/m2 x 0.77 x cos 11)
= 12 kW / 0.848 kW/m2
= 14.15 m2

Utilization of Solar Radiation

☐ Solar radiation is converted into heat by

means of absorber.
☐ The ideal absorber should combine a
high absorption coefficient with low
coefficient of emission, reflection, and
transmission.
☐ Surfaces treated with carbon black or
black paints absorb up to 90-97% of solar
radiation but the same time have high
emissivity in the infrared range

8
☐ Emission losses from the absorber
can be reduced by covering the
absorber with glass or transparent film.
☐ Covering must exhibit high
transmissivity in the direction of
radiation.
☐ In order to increase the radiation
intensity on the absorber surfaces,
either flat mirror reflector or
concentrating reflector and lenses
should be employed.
☐ Reflecting surfaces should have the
following characteristics:
• high reflection coefficient
• good mechanical and thermal
properties
• chemical resistant
• inexpensive

Reflection Value of Materials

Electroplated Silver 0.96

Mirror Glass 0.88
Aluminum foil 0.86
Aluminized C-Mylar 0.76

9
 Classification of Solar Thermal
Systems

☐ Low-Temperature System
• It uses a flat-plate solar
collector.
• Color dull black with glass
cover to minimize solar
heat emission outside the
absorber.
• Operating temperature is
100°C and below.
• Collection efficiency is up
to 70%.

Low-Temperature Solar Collectors

10
☐ High-Temperature System
• It uses a concentrating-
type solar collector.
• Usually curvilinear collector
made of material with high
emissivity and equipped
with tracking device.
• Thermal fluid is usually
used in delivering the heat
to the load.
• Operating temperature is
above 100°C.
• Collection efficiency is up
to 80%.

A 20liter-capacity solar water heater is used to raise the temperature

of water from 25° to 40°C in 1 hour. What is the area of the tube-type
solar collector required for the heater if it has a 70% collection
efficiency and directly oriented to the sunlight. The average power
density of the sun is 0.89 kW/m2.

Given:
Volume of water - 20 li
Temperature - 25° to 40°C
Heating time - 1 hr
Collection efficiency - 70%
Average power density - 0.89 kW/m2
Required: Collector Area
Solution:
Power required = 20 li/1 hr x 1 kg/li x 1 kcal/kg-°C
x (40°C – 25°C)
= 30 kcal/hr x 0.0012 kW-hr/kcal
= 0.36 kW
Area of collector = 0.36 kW / (0.89 kW/m2 x 0.70)
= 0.57 m2

11
 High-Temperature Solar Collector

Technical Characteristics of Solar

Thermal Systems
System Employing Flat-Plate
Collector

• It utilizes the total global radiation.

• Not generally used to track the sun.
• Losses due to shading of the side
wall is approximately 3%.
• Average degree of soiling of the
covering reduces the efficiency by
approximately 2%.
• Short-term variation in radiation
lowers the efficiency by 1-5%.

12
☐ System Employing
Concentrating Collector

• It only utilizes direct radiation.

• Requires to track the sun.
• Various lenses are parabolic
and spherical, cylindrical and
dish-shaped mirror.
• Problems on the manufacturing
of flawless collector surfaces.
• Durability of the reflector
coating.
• Relatively high cost.

Collection Efficiency of Various Solar

Collectors
Solar Collector Collection
Efficiency
(%)
Air Inflated Plastic Collector 25 – 49
Inflated Black tunnel Plastic 21 – 28
Free-Standing Flat Plate Solar Collector (covered with 40 – 45
clear ethylene plastic with suspended black polyethylene
absorbing surface and pylwood back cover
Wrap around Solar Collector 12 – 30
Integrated Roof Wall solar Collector 22 to 86
Single Glass Cover Mounted on Buildings 84
Bare plate Mounted on Buildings 46
Plastic Covered with Curved, Flat, or Corrugated 50 – 52
Aluminum with Black Paint

13
 Components of Solar Thermal
Systems

• Heat Source – absorbs the

solar energy and converts it to
heat energy.
• Heat Store – traps the heat
and stores it for succeeding
use.
• Heat Transmission System –
transports the heat from the
source to the storage and to the
appliances.
• Consumer - utilizes the solar
energy.

Solar Thermal Systems

14
 Storage of Solar Energy

• The storage system is used to

compensate for the
divergencies between energy
supply and demand.

• Thermal, chemical,
electrochemical, and
mechanical storage devices are
available.

• The warm water steam and

solid matter store are effective
and in operational use at
present.

15
Operating Ranges of Most Common Stores
Type of Store Storage Medium Max. Temperature
(°C)
Liquid Store Warm Water 100
Hot Water 200
Thermal Oil 430
Steam Store Water Vapor 250
Solid Matter Store Gray Cast Iron 500
Ceramics, concrete 600
Magnesite 800
Latent Store Salt Hydrates 600
Eutectic mixture salt 850

Applications of Solar Thermal

Systems

• Solar Water Heating

• Solar Space Heating
• Solar Cooker
• Solar Dryer
• Solar Water Disinfection

16
Solar Water Heater – is used to raise the temperature of water for
domestic application such as bathing, cooking, etc.

17
 Solar Cookers

• Box-Type Solar Cooker – consists of a well-insulated box

with black interior in which the food is placed.
• Reflector Cooker and Concentrators – consists of parabolic
reflectors and holder for the cooking pot situated at the
cooker’s focal point.
• Heat-Accumulating Solar Cooker – gathers heat from the
sun all day long and stores it for use after sundown and even
on the next morning.
• Steam Cooker – uses an efficient collector to generate steam
which rises to an elevated cooking box that heats the food at
the bottom of the cooking pot.

18
Solar Cooker – is a high-temperature solar system designed for
cooking food.

19
What is the collection efficiency of a solar cooker that delivers 1 kW
thermal energy to a cooking pot if it has 1.2 m2 collector area? The
average power density is 0.89 kW/m2.

Given:
Thermal output - 1 kW
Area of collector - 1.2 m2
Average power density - 0.89 kW/m2

Required: Collection Efficiency

Solution:

Collection Efficiency = 1 kW x 100 / (0.89 kW/m2) 1.2 m2

= 93.6%

Solar Cooker

20
 Solar Collectors for Grain Drying

• Bin-Wall or Wrap Around

Solar Collector

• Integrating Building Roof-Wall

Solar Collector

• Air Inflated Plastic Collector

• Free-Standing Flat Plate

Collector

21
Ten (10) tons of paddy is to be sundried from 20% to 14% wet basis.
What is the amount of moisture that can be removed from the paddy if it
will be exposed under the sun for 6 hours and what is the rate of
moisture removal per hour? How much energy is required to remove
moisture per hour? What is the approximate area of the drying floor
needed if the collection efficiency of the drying system is 60%? Assume
a 0.89 kW/m2 average power density and a 1,200 kcal/kg heat of
vaporization of water from the grain. If paddy has 580 kg/m3 density,
what should be its approximate thickness on the drying floor?

Given:
MC content - 20% to 14 % in 6 hrs
Weight of paddy - 10 tons
Heat of vaporization - 1,200 kcal/kg
Average power density - 0.89 kW/m2
Collection efficiency - 60%
Paddy density - 580 kg/m3

22
Required: Weight of Moisture Removed
Rate of Moisture Removal
Energy Required
Drying Floor Area
Paddy Thickness on the drying floor
Solution:
Wt. final = Wi (1 – MCi) / (1 – MCf)
= 10 ton (1- 0. 20) / (1 -0.14)
= 10 (0.80) / (0.86)
= 9.3 tons
Wt. of Moisture Removed = 10 – 9.30 tons
= 0.7 ton
Rate of Moisture Removal = 700 kg / 6 hrs
= 116.67 kg/hr
Energy Required = 116.67 kg/hr x 1,200 kcal/kg
= 140,004.00 kcal/hr x 0.0012 kW-hr/kcal
= 168.0 kW
Drying Area = 168.0 kW / (0.89 kW/m2 x 0.60)
= 314.6 m2
Thickness of Bed = (10 tons x 1000 kg/ton)/ (580 kg/m3 x 314.6 m2)
= 0.0548 m

Biomass Solar
Furnace Collector

Drying
Cabinet

Tray-Type Cabinet Dryer with Solar Collector Cum Biomass

Furnace

23
 REFERENCES
☐ EIA. 2021. Solar Explained.
[Link]
☐ GATE/GTZ.1986. Solar energy: Status Report. Postbox 5180, D-
6236 Eschborn 1, Federal Republic of Germany. 54pp.
☐ Gayanilo,V.G. a Solar –Heated Grain Dryer for the Tropics.
Dissertation Thesis Manuscript. Department of Agricultural Engineering.
Iowa State of [Link], Iowa. U.S.A. 198
☐ Kunhke, K., Reuber, M., Schwefel. 1990. Solar Cookers in the Third
World. Evaluation of the Prerequisites,Prospects, abd Impact of an
Innovative Technology. Postbox 5180, D-6236 Eschborn 1, Federal
Republic of Germany. 228pp.
☐ Macabebe,E.Q.B., [Link]. A Review of community-based solar home
system [Link] the Philippines. MATEC Web of Conference70.
12002 (2016). 5pp
☐ SOLARGIS. 2021. Solar resource map of the Philippines.
[Link]
SolarPACES. 2021. Potential for Solar Thermal Energy by Country.
[Link]
thermal-energy-by-member-nation/

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

24
1. The average power density of 4. The basis for determining the
solar heat striking the earth degree of inclination of the solar
surface. collector.
a. 1 kW/m² a. Latitude of the place
b. 0.89 kW/m² b. Longitude of the place
c. 0.58 kW/m² c. Elevation of the place
d. None of the above d. None of the above

2. The factor affecting solar 5. The device used to convert

radiation. solar radiation into heat.
a. Cloudiness a. Solar absorber
b. Overcasting b. Solar cell
c. Shade c. Solar panel
d. All of the above d. None of the above

3. The place located near the 6. A type of solar collector that

equator will receive solar follows the movement of the sun.
radiation than those which are far a. Flat-plate-type collector
from it. b. Concentrating-type collector
c. Air-inflated-type collector
a. less
d. None of the above
b. the same
c. more
d. None of the above

7. Determine the size of the flat- 9. A solar collector purposely to

plate solar collector reflect back the heat of a given
perpendicularly inclined at 11 deg space to increase its
to the direction of the sunlight temperature.
which is required to supply a. Flat-plate-type collector
thermal heat to a fruit dryer that b. Concentrating-type collector
consumes 1000 kcal per hour of c. Air-inflated-type collector
heat energy. Assume a 0.89 kW d. None of the above
per m2 average power density and
a 0.77 transmission factor. 10. Collection efficiency of a high-
a. 10.32 m2 temperature system solar
b. 12.65 m2 collector.
c. 14.15 m2 a. Up to 60%
d. None of the above b. Up to 70%
c. Up to 80%
8. Non-tract-type solar collector. d. None of the above
a. Flat-plate-type collector
b. Concentrating-type collector 11. Collection efficiency of a low-
c. Air-inflated-type collector temperature system solar
d. None of the above collector.
a. Up to 60%
b. Up to 70%
c. Up to 80%
d. None of the above

25
12. Parabolic solar collector is an 15. The solar tracker in a solar
example of . power system is .
a. non-concentrating type SC a. used to carry the solar collector
b. concentrating type SC in areas where sun energy is most
c. non-tract type solar collector efficient
d. None of the above b. used to tilt the solar collector to
follow the direct position of the sun
13. Suitable heat collector for solar cell. c. used to monitor the position of
a. High-temperature flat-plate the sun
collector d. None of the above
b. Low-temperature parabolic solar
collector 16. Which of the following
c. Air-inflated type collector statements is true?
d. None of the above a. The intensity of solar radiation
increases as the distance of the
14. What is the collection efficiency of a location from the equator increases.
solar cooker that delivers a 1kW b. The intensity of solar radiation
thermal energy to a cooking pot if it has decreases as the distance of the
a 1.2 m2 collector area? The average location from the equator increases.
power density is 0.89 kW/m2. c. The intensity of solar radiation
a. 81.7 % does not change with the distance
b. 89.3 % of the location from the equator.
c. 93.6 % d. None of the above
d. None of the above

17. Two hundred liters of water is to be 19. Concentrating reflector the

heated from 30°C to 80°C in 1 hour radiation intensity of the absorbing
using solar heat. What is the power surface.
required to heat the given amount of a. increases
water? b. decreases
a. 9 kW c. maintains
b. 11 kW d. None of the above
c. 12 kW
d. None of the above 20. Which of the following materials
provide high reflection value?
18. What is the area of the tube-type a. Mirror glass
solar collector required for the heater b. Aluminum foil
in heating the 200 liters of water in c. Electroplated silver
Item 28 above, if the collection d. None of the above
efficiency is 80% and is oriented direct
to the sunlight. The average power 21. The solar collector’s heat
density of the sun is 0.89 kW/m2. absorbing capacity can be optimized
a. 14.3 m2 by .
b. 16..8 m2 a. increasing its insulation thickness
c. 19.6 m2 b. providing the solar collector
d. None of the above surface with glass mirror
c. painting the solar collector with dull
black color
d. None of the above

26