Topic 19: REDOX EQUILIBRIA

19. 1. Standard electrode potentials

19.1.1 Describe the standard hydrogen electrode.

19.1.2 Define the term standard electrode potential (E ) .
19.1.3 Calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials.
19.1.4 Predict whether a reaction will be spontaneous using standard electrode potential values.

In the SL section you were asked to predict the spontaneity of redox reactions using the reactivity series. It is
impossible to know how all elements or ions fit into this series. However, there is a much more accurate way
of predicting spontaneity of redox reactions and this involves using standard electrode potentials which can
be found in data booklets.

What is the standard electrode potential (standard reduction potential) and how is it measured?

In each half-cell, which in the case of most metals consists of the metal itself immersed in a 1.00 mol dm -3
solution of that metal, a redox reaction goes on: one specie, M, reduces into another specie, M 2+, and this
new specie oxidises back into the original specie, M, as shown by the equations below.
In any half cell, an equilibrium exists between these two opposing reactions. This is called a redox
equilibrium.

For instance, in a half cell of metal M, an equilibrium is established between the following reactions:

M (s)

M2+ (aq)

The equilibrium can be summarised as follows:

M (s)  M2+ (aq) + 2e- oxidation
M2+ + 2e-  M (1)
M2+ (aq) + 2e-  M (s) reduction
Particles M2+ and M are called a redox couple!!

The above equation is referred to as the half-cell equation and always follows the format:

oxidised specie (has lost e -) + electron  reduced specie (has gained e -)

It shows the redox equilibrium from a reduction point of view.

M2+ is the oxidised specie as it has lost electrons and now gains electrons, causing the oxidation of M - it
causes M to lose electrons and is therefore the oxidising agent in the redox couple.
M is the reduced specie; it is also the reducing agent in the couple as it reduces M 2+ in the reverse reaction; it
gives its electrons to M2+.

As a result of this redox equilibrium a potential difference (or charge separation) is set up in the half cell
between the metal atoms in the metal strip and the metal ions in the solution. The potential difference of the
half cell depends on the position of the equilibrium
within the half-cell:

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 If the equilibrium in equation (1) is more to the left, because oxidation is more spontaneous, then the
metal strip is negative relative to the solution which is positive. This is the case because the electrons the
metal atom has released to become an ion, stay in the metal and the positive ion goes into the solution
where there are more positive ions then negative ions.

 If the equilibrium is more to the right, because reduction is more spontaneous, then the metal strip
becomes more positive relative to the solution as it loses electrons which are taken up by the positive ions
in the solution which change into atoms at its surface. The solution becomes negative as there are less
positive ions in it.

The position of this equilibrium can be indicated by a quantity called the electrode potential.

However, it is impossible to measure the electrode potential of a single half-cell.

What we can measure is how the position of the redox equilibrium in one half-cell compares with the position
of another half-cell.

To be able to compare positions of redox equilibrium of different half-cells they are all compared with the
same half-cell and that is the standard hydrogen half-cell. (you could be asked to describe a standard
hydrogen half-cell – you must then include the standard conditions which are needed as the electrode
potential is affected by these factors like temperature, concentration and pressure).

To make the comparison easier the potential difference in the standard hydrogen electrode has been given a
relative value of 0.0V.

YOU NEED TO KNOW A STANDARD HYDROGEN HALF-CELL: it has a platinum electrode, H 2 gas at
1 atm, and an acid at pH = 0 (or [H+(aq)] = 1 mol dm3) and should be at 298K.

To measure the standard electrode potential of a

redox couple, its half-cell and a hydrogen half-cell
are connected with a voltmeter and a salt bridge,
to form an electrochemical cell or voltaic cell.

The voltage of this electrochemical cell is then

measured and is called the standard electrode
potential. Standard conditions are 298K, 1 atm for
gases and 1mol dm-3 for solutions as discussed
before. A half-cell which is used in standard
conditions is called a standard half-cell.

The diagram shows how the standard electrode

potential of a magnesium half cell is measured
using a standard hydrogen half cell.

In the case of non-metal or non-liquid redox couples, platinum is used as the electrode and 1 mol dm -3
solutions are used.

The standard electrode potential of a half cell is the potential difference when the half-cell is connected to
a hydrogen half-cell under standard conditions, 1.00 mol dm -3 concentrations, 298K and 1 atm.
It is a relative value as it is the potential difference between the half-cell and the hydrogen half-cell (under
standard conditions) and gives an indication of the oxidising or reducing ability of the substance. Like the
equilibrium constant, K, it indicates the position of the redox equilibrium.

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As the equation for the standard electrode potential is expressed in terms of reduction, the standard
electrode potential could also be referred to as the standard reduction potential.

See table 14 in data booklet for standard electrode potential values.

A negative standard electrode potential (or the most negative/least positive value) means:

For instance, the standard electrode potential for Mg 2+ + 2e-  Mg is -2.37 V.

 the -2.37V refers to the reduction reaction

 the position of equilibrium in the magnesium half cell is more to the left than in the hydrogen half-cell;
 the reverse reaction, the oxidation, is favoured more than in the hydrogen half cell;
 Mg2+ is a weaker oxidising agent than H+;
 Mg, the product, has a greater tendency than hydrogen molecules, H 2, to release electrons and is
therefore a better reducing agent than hydrogen, H 2.
 the more negative the value, the least likely it is that the forward reaction occurs; the more
likely/spontaneous the reverse reaction;
 the lower its standard electrode potential, the lower the reducing ability of the half cell, the greater its
oxidising ability i.e. its ability to lose electrons;
 electrons flows from the magnesium half cell (cathode/negative) to the hydrogen half cell.

A positive standard electrode potential means: e.g. Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu is +0.34 V.

 the position of equilibrium in the redox reaction is more to the right than in the hydrogen half-cell;
 the forward reaction, reduction, is favoured more than in the hydrogen half cell;
 Cu2+ is a stronger oxidising agent than hydrogen ions, H + and much stronger than Mg 2+,
 Cu2+ has a greater tendency to accept electrons than H +;
 the more positive its standard reducing potential, the more likely the forward reaction or reduction to
occur; the stronger its oxidizing ability.
 electrons flows from the hydrogen half cell (cathode) to the copper half cell.

The standard electrode potential is affected by:

 concentration of ions:
 when [M2+ (aq)] decreases, E is reduced (less positive/more negative) as equilibrium shifts to the
reactant
 when [ M2+ (aq)] increased, E is increased (more positive/less negative) as equilibrium shifts to
the right
 temperature
 pressure of gases: same effect as concentration
 pH

BUT independent of number of moles of electrons transferred as the likelihood (feasibility or spontaneity)
of the reaction occurring does not change

The standard electrode potentials are used to:

Identify the strongest oxidising agent and the strongest reduced specie/reducing agent.

The strongest oxidising agent is the oxidised specie with The strongest reducing agent is the reduced
the highest electrode potential value i.e. F2 – the other specie with the most negative value i.e. Li – it is
specie in this redox couple, F-, is the weakest reducing paired with the weakest oxidising agent, Li +. The

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agent. In table 14, the lower you go on the left side of the higher up you go on the right side of the table, the
table the stronger the oxidizing agent. F2 oxidize all the stronger the reducing agent. Li can reduce all
reduced species (species on the right) that are above it the oxidized species (species on the left of the
in the table that is all of them!! table) that are below it.

An oxidizing agent can oxidize all the reduced species that are above it whilst a reducing agent can reduce
the oxidized species that are below it.

Standard electrode potential in electrochemical cells

The standard electrode potentials allow us to decide which half-cell in an electrochemical or voltaic cell
becomes the negative or positive electrode and in which direction the current will flow.

How?
 In the half cell (or electrode) with the lowest E (lowest reduction potential) the oxidation is favoured i.e.
electrons are released; as a result the half cell becomes the negative electrode (=anode) as the released
electrons will be transferred to the other half cell. The half cell with the lowest E value becomes the
reducing agent and reduces the half-cell with the higher E.

 The half cell with the greater E is the half cell in which reduction will occur; as a result it becomes the
positive electrode (=cathode) in the electrochemical cell;

The anode is the half-cell/electrode where OXIDATION occurs while the cathode is the
electrode/half-cell where REDUCTION occurs. Electrons always flow from the anode to the cathode.

Electrochemical cells are usually drawn with the anode/oxidation reaction on the left and the
cathode/reduction reaction on the right; of each reaction the reactants are given before the products as well
as the conditions e.g. concentrations and/or use of platinum as electrode. The // represents the salt bridge.

Examples:

zinc-copper voltaic cell: Zn (s)/Zn 2+ (1.00 mol dm-3) // Cu2+/Cu (s) (1.00 mol dm-3)

anode/oxidation cathode/reduction

hydrogen- copper voltaic cell: Pt(s) H 2 /H+ (1.00 mol dm-3)// Cu2+/Cu (s) (1.00 mol dm-3)

Calculating the cell potential, E cell, of an electrochemical cell

The cell potential of an electrochemical cell (or voltaic cell) is the theoretical potential difference that can be
obtained when two half-cells are combined under standard conditions.
The cell potential can be measured using a high resistance voltmeter but it can also be calculated.

There are two methods, which we can use to calculate the cell potential.

(i) the potential difference of the voltaic cell can then be calculated in the following way:

Compare the E, standard electrode potential, of each half-cell. The more negative value becomes the left
hand electrode (where oxidation occurs) while the larger value becomes the right hand electrode (reduction)
and then:

Ecell = E right hand electrode - E left hand electrode

 

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 positive electrode negative electrode
cathode anode
(reduction) (oxidation)

In the case of a zinc-copper cell:

half-reactions: Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu Zn  Zn2+ + 2e-

half-cell: Cu 2+ /Cu(s) Zn(s)/ Zn 2+ or

Ecell = E substance reduced - E substance oxidised Example:

Ecell of zinc-copper cell = +0.34 V - (- 0.76 V) = +1.10 V

(ii) adding of half-equations:

Alternatively, the overall equation for the electrochemical reaction is the sum of the equations showing the
reaction which is favoured in each half-cell.
The equation at the positive electrode is left as is (= with the oxidising agent on the left) while the reaction at
the negative electrode is reversed and because of this the sign of the E θ also needs to be reversed. Add up
the equations and electrode potentials

Example

Suppose we set up a cell using the two half-reactions:

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-  Zn (s) E = -0.76V Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s) E = +0.34V

Decide on the direction of the cell reaction. It is not possible for both reductions to occur so one must
become an oxidation. The one that gets reversed is the one with the lowest standard electrode potential
as it the weakest oxidising agent – in this case zinc which will be the negative electrode in the cell.
The half reactions that actually occur when you connect these half-cells are:

Zn (s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e- E = + 0.76V REVERSED SIGN/zinc is negative electrode

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s) E = +0.34V

We now know the contribution each half-cell makes to the overall cell potential.
To get Ecell we simply add them together: E  cell = + 0.76 V + 0.34V = +1.10 V

To find the overall equation in the cell as a whole, add the two half –equations

Zn (s)  Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s)

Cu2+ (aq) + Zn (s)  Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq)

Cell potential, Ecell

 Is always a positive number as it is indicates the feasibility or spontaneity of the reaction.

 Is also independent from the number of moles of reactant and product involved.
Example:
for the reaction Fe3+ + e-  Fe2+ , the Eθ = + 0. 77 V but for the reaction

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 2Fe3+ + 2e-  2Fe2+ , the Eθ is also + 0. 77 V.
 It allows us to:
 predict the direction in which the current will flow;
 predict the potential difference of the cell itself;
 how likely the reaction is to go: the more positive the E θ the more spontaneous the reaction (the
bigger the difference in standard electrode potential between the two half-cells the more
spontaneous the reaction).
Salt bridge

An electrochemical or voltaic cell needs a complete circuit for it to work. Electrons move from the anode to the
cathode through the external wires as a result of oxidation taking place at the anode and reduction taking
place at the cathode. As a result of each reaction a charge builds up in each of the solutions in the half-cells.
To keep the electrochemical cell working both half-cells need to remain electrically neutral and this is what the
salt bridge does.
The salt bridge completes the circuit and allows the movement of ions:
 cations from the oxidation half cell move through the salt bridge to the reduction half cell as they
are attracted by the negatively charged solution (the solution has become overall negative as its positive
ions are being reduced out of the solution) leaving excess negative ions;
 anions from the reduction half cell move through the salt bridge to oxidation half-cell as its solution
has become positive as a result of the oxidation taking place which releases positive ions into the
solution.

Exercises

1. When a cell is made from a standard cadmium half-cell, and a standard copper half-cell, the reading on
the voltmeter is 0.74 V. The copper electrode forms the positive electrode of the cell. What is the
electrode potential of the cadmium half-cell?

2. A cell is made from a Co2+ (aq) /Co (s) half-cell and a Cu 2+ (aq)/Cu(s) half-cell. Eφcell = + 0.62 V with the
copper half-cell positive. Calculate the standard electrode potential of the cobalt cell.

3. (a) What would be the maximum potential difference of an electrochemical cell made up from a
standard Co2+(aq) /Co (s) half-cell and a standard Pb 2+ (aq)/Pb(s) half-cell?
(b) In the above cell which electrode will form the positive terminal?
(c) Write an equation for the half reaction that can occur at the positive electrode.
(d) Draw a cell diagram and write the short notation for the cell.

4. (a) Calculate Eθcell values for cells made from the following standard half-cells:
(i) Fe2+ (aq) /Fe (s) and Ni2+ (aq)/Ni(s)
(ii) Zn2+ (aq) /Zn (s) and S(s)/S2- (aq) (Eθcell for the sulphur half cell = + 0.141 V)
(iii) Sn4+ (aq) /Sn2+ (aq) (Eφcell = + 0.154 V) and MnO4- (aq)/Mn2+ (aq)
(b) Write balanced full equations for each reaction in (a).

5. (N99) The properties of an unknown metal M and its ions are being investigated.

(a) Assuming that there is a supply of the metal and its soluble sulfate, describe how the standard
electrode potential, M2+ (aq) //M (s), could be determined. (you may answer by drawing a fully labelled
diagram if you wish)

(b) M also forms an oxyanion, MO3-, that is readily converted to M2+ in acid solution. Calculate the
oxidation number of M in MO 3- ion. State and explain whether MO 3-  M2+ is an oxidation or a
reduction process. Write a balanced half-equation for this reaction.

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 (c) The standard electrode potential for the reaction in (b) is found to be +1.2 V. Using Table 15 in your
data booklet explain how this value could be used to predict whether MO 3- would oxidise Br- ions to
Br2 or whether Br2 would oxidise colourless M2+ to MO3-. Write a balanced equation for the reaction
that would be expected to occur. How could this prediction be tested experimentally? (Give the
observations you would expect for both a positive and negative result). Suggest a reason why this
prediction might not be realised.

Prediction of spontaneity of redox reactions:

The standard electrode potential can also be used to predict whether a redox reaction is spontaneous.
Spontaneous redox reactions always occur between the strongest oxidising agent and the strongest reducing
agent in two redox couples as shown by the example below. The products of the redox are the weaker
reducing and oxidising agents.

(a) The reaction between copper and a zinc sulphate solution is not spontaneous! Why?

Checking the standard electrode potentials from the electrochemical series:

stronger Cu 2+ + 2e-  Cu E φCu=2/Cu = + 0. 34V stronger

oxidising reducing
agent Zn 2+ + 2e-  Zn E φZn+2/Zn = - 0.76 V agent

If solid copper is placed in a zinc sulphate solution, the copper can only be oxidised which means Zn 2+ ions
must be reduced. So the following cell would be set up:

Cu (s) /Cu2+ (aq) (1.00 M) // Zn 2+ (aq) (1.00M) / Zn (s)

The cell potential of this proposed cell would be calculated in the following way:

Ecell = E right - E left = - 0.76 V - ( 0.34 V) = -1.10 V

A negative value indicates that the reaction is non-spontaneous and that it will not occur.
The above makes sense as Cu 2+ is the stronger oxidising agent while Zn is the best reducing agent so the
only reaction possible is between those two while the products of a spontaneous redox reaction are always
the weaker oxidising (=Zn2+)and reducing agents (=Cu).
Cu is not as strong a reducing agent as Zn and can therefore not be oxidised in the presence of Zn or any
other element with a standard electrode potential which is less positive.

(b) The reaction between zinc and a copper solution is spontaneous. Why?

See the calculation on page 5 in which the E cell was calculated and had a positive value. Cu has a much
higher reduction potential and wins the competition for electrons while the zinc has to supply them.

Having a positive value for the possible E cell does not mean that the reaction will go ahead: just like
with energetics, a negative free energy value does not mean the reaction happens although it is
spontaneous AT STANDARD CONDITIONS. A spontaneous reaction might not appear to occur
because of a kinetics barrier i.e. it goes on extremely slowly because of high activation energy

19. 2 Electrolysis

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19.2.1 Predict and explain the products of electrolysis of aqueous solutions.
19.2.2 Determine the relative amounts of the products formed during electrolysis.
19.2.3 Describe the use of electrolysis in electroplating.

Electrolysis is a reaction in which electrical energy is used to cause a non-spontaneous reaction to occur.
In an electrolytic cell electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.

At the cathode, positive ions (cations) are reduced as they gain electrons. At the anode, anions are oxidised
as they lose electrons.

You should be able to predict the products formed during an electrolysis reaction. The formation of these
products depends on the state of the electrolyte.
If the salt is molten (e.g. molten sodium chloride), then

 at cathode, the metal ions are reduced forming metal atoms;

 at anode the non-metal ions are oxidised to non-metal molecules according to the following equations:

anode: 2Cl- (l)  Cl2 (g) + 2e-

cathode: 2Na+ (l) + 2e-  2 Na (l)
overall equation: 2Cl- (l) + -2Na+ (l)  2 Na (l) + Cl2 (g)

If the salt is in an aqueous solution, then

The following factors need to be considered:
 concentration of the solution
 position of the species involved in the electrochemical series
 the nature of the electrodes

The most important of the factors is the concentration of the solution:

If the electrolyte solution is dilute

solution is dilute: water is both oxidised and reduced according to the following half-equations:

at cathode H2O (l) + e-  ½ H2 (g) + OH- (aq) (x2)

at anode H2O (l)  2H+ (aq) + ½ O2 (g) + 2e-
3H2O (l)  2H (aq) + ½ O2 (g) + H2 (g) + 2OH- (aq)
+
(ratio of H2 to O2 = 2: 1)

If the electrolyte solution is concentrated

Check standard electrode potential of each specie that can be reduced at the cathode and the standard
electrode potential of each specie that can be oxidised at the anode.

Example 1: concentrated aqueous sodium chloride:

at the cathode: possible reductions are: 2H2O (l) + 2e-  H2 (g) + 2OH- (aq) Ecell = -0.83 V
Na+ (aq) + e-  Na (s) Ecell = - 2.71 V

As the water redox couple has the highest standard electrode potential it is the redox couple that is
reduced so hydrogen gas is produced.

at the anode: possible oxidation are: 2H 2O (l)  O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e- Ecell = - 1.23 V
2Cl- (aq) + e-  Cl2 (g) Ecell = - 1.36 V

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Although the water redox couple has the highest standard oxidation potential it is the chlorine because of
its higher concentration that is oxidised to form chlorine gas.

Overall equation of the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous solutions:

2H2O (l) + 2e-  H2 (g) + 2OH- (aq) E cell = - 0.83 V

2Cl- (aq)  Cl2 (g) + 2e- E cell = - 1.36 V
2H2O (l) + 2Cl- (aq)  Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) + 2OH- (aq) sum = - 2.19 V

Example 2: concentrated aqueous copper sulphate:

at the cathode: possible reductions are: 2H2O (l) + 2e-  H2 (g) + 2OH- (aq) Ecell = -0.83 V
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s) Ecell = + 0.34V

As the copper redox couple has the highest standard electrode potential it is the redox couple that is
reduced so copper atoms are produced. The solution becomes colourless.

at the anode: possible oxidation are: H 2O (l)  ½ O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e- Ecell = - 1.23 V
SO42- (aq)  S2O82- (aq) + 2e- Ecell = - 2.00 V

As the water redox couple has the highest standard oxidation potential it is the water that is oxidized and
produces oxygen gas. The solution becomes acidic as H + are produced.
Overall equation of the electrolysis of concentrated concentrated aqueous solutions:

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s) E cell = + 0.34V

H2O (l)  ½ O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e- E cell = - 1.23 V

Cu2+ (aq) + H2O (l)  ½ O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + Cu (s) sum = - 0.89 V

The above can also be summarised in the following way.

When the solution is concentrated and the electrodes are passive or inert, the following rules can be used at
each electrode:

Cathode: if the ion species is above hydrogen in Anode: if the species is above hydroxide in the
the series below, it has a lower tendency to be series below, it has a lower tendency to be
reduced than hydrogen ions and hydrogen oxidised than hydroxide ions and oxygen
molecules are produced. molecules are produced.
K+
Na+ SO42-
Ca2+ NO3-
Mg2+ CO23-
For all of these ions hydrogen is produced
Al3+ OH- for all of these species oxygen is
2+
Zn produced
Fe2+ I-
H+ Cl-
Cu2+ the metal is produced F- the halogen is produced

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 Ag+
Au2+

Quantitative aspects of electrolysis

Faraday = the amount of charge carried by 1 mole of electrons which is 96 500 C (=coulomb = unit of charge)

1 Faraday = 1 mole of electrons

Calculations involving electrolysis are based on Faraday’s Law.

Faraday discovered that the quantity of charge needed to produce 1 mole of a substance was always a
multiple of 96 500C! So,
Mass of a substance liberated or dissolved at an electrode is proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed.
His Law can be formulated in two more practical ways:

 the mass of a substance produced at an electrode during electrolysis is proportional to the charge passed;
 the number of Faradays required to discharge one mole of an ion at an electrode equals the number of
charges on the ion

Amount of substance produced during a given amount of time depends on:

 amount of charge passed: Q = I x t (depends on current and time);

 charge on ion

Steps involved in calculating amounts of substances reduced or oxidised in electrolysis.

The starting point is balanced redox equation and then:

multiply divide by divide by multiply by molar mass

96 500 n

current (A) charge in number of moles grams of

and time (s) coulombs faradays or reduced or substance
moles of oxidised
electrons

n = number of moles of electrons in balanced redox equation.

Example: A current of 0.452 A is passed through an electrolytic cell containing molten CaCl 2 for 1.50 hours.
Write the electrode reactions and calculate the quantity of products in grams formed at the electrodes.

Answer: The reactions going on at each electrode are:

cathode: Ca 2+ + 2e-  Ca (l)

anode: 2Cl- (aq)  Cl2 (g) + 2e-

Ca2+ + 2Cl- (aq)  Cl2 (g) + Ca (l)

The quantities of Ca metal and chlorine gas formed depend on the number of electrons that pass through the
electrolytic cell, which in turn depends on the current and time, or charge:

?C = 1.50 h x 3600s/h x 0.452 C/s = 2.44 x 10 3 C

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Since 2 moles of electrons (=n ) are required to reduce 1 mole of Ca 2+ ions, the mass of Ca metal formed at
the cathode is calculated as follows:

? g Ca = 2.44 x 103 C / 96,500C x ½ (divide by 2) x 40.08 g = 0.507 g Ca

The anode reaction indicates that 1 mole of chlorine is produced per 2F of electricity. Hence the mass of
chlorine formed is

? g Cl2 = 2.44 x 103 C / 96,500C x ½ (divide by 2) x 70.90 g = 0.896 g chlorine

Exercises

1. How many grams of Cu will be deposited from a solution of CuSO 4 by a current of 1.5 A flowing for 2.0
hours?

2. Find the mass of copper produced at the cathode by passing a current of 3.00 A through aqueous copper
sulfate for exactly 2 hours.

3. A constant current is passed through an electrolytic cell containing molten MgCl 2 for 18 hours.
If 4.8 x 105 g of chlorine are obtained, what is the current in amperes? (answer = 2.0 x 10 4 A)

4. Consider the electrolysis of CaCl2 (l). How many grams of Ca (s) can be produced by passing 0.5 A for
30 minutes?

5. How many faradays of electricity ( or moles of electrons) are required to produce:

(a) 0.84 dm3 of oxygen gas from hydrogen sulfate (aq)

(b) 1.50 dm3 of chlorine gas from NaCl (l)
(c) 6.0 g of tin from molten SnCl2.

6. How many hours would it take to produce 25.0 g of Cr from a solution of CrCl 3 by a current of 2.75 A?

Electroplating

In an electrolytic cell used for electroplating e.g. copper:

 the cathode should be the object that needs to be plated so that its negative charge attracts the positive
copper ions coming from the anode which then are reduced into copper atoms which leave the solution
and are deposited onto the object;
half-equation: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-  Cu (s)

 the electrolyte should be a solution of a copper salt such as copper nitrate or copper sulphate.

 the anode could be:

 carbon, in that case oxidation of water occurs producing oxygen gas

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 half-equation: H2O (l)  ½ O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e-

In addition to the cathode being coated with copper, the solution will become colourless and have
a lower pH.

 copper (this can be impure copper), in that case copper atoms should be oxidised into copper ions
which then go into the solutions; the electrons that have been released are attracted to the positive
terminal of the power supply

half-equation: Cu(s)  Cu2+ (aq) + e-

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