FNCE 10002
PRINCIPLES OF FINANCE NOTES
Week 1-12
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Week 3 – Applications in Financial Mathematics I
Annual loan payment is an ordinary annuity.
In a loan amortization schedule:
Ø Interest paid = (previous period’s principal) x interest rate
Ø Principal repaid = Loan payment – Interest paid
Ø Principal balance remaining = Previous period’s principal – Principal repaid
Ø Principal balance = PV of remaining loan payments
Effective annual interest rate is the annualized rate that takes account of compounding within the year.
& '
𝑟" = 1 + − 1
'
where r = annual percentage rate
k = compounding frequency (1 for annual, 2 for semi-annual, 12 for monthly, etc)
r/k is the per period interest rate
Properties of the Effective Annual Interest Rate:
Ø 𝑟 = 𝑟" only when compound frequency is one year (k=1);; otherwise 𝑟" will always exceed 𝑟.
Ø The effective annual rate with continuous compounding (compounding frequency with k
approaching infinity) is 𝑟" = 𝑒 & − 1.
The more frequent you compound (the bigger the k), the higher the effective annual interest rate you
get.
Short term debt instruments:
Ø Matures within the year – typically in 90 and 180 days
Ø Issuer has the contractual obligation to make promised payment at maturity
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Long term debt instruments:
Ø Matures after several years
Ø May or may not promise a regular interest (or coupon) payment
Ø Issuer has the contractual obligation to make all promised payments.
Face (or par) value is the dollar amount paid at maturity.
Ø Usually $1000 or its multiples unless otherwise mentioned
Coupon (or interest) rate is the interest rate promised by the issuer.
Ø It is expressed as a percentage of the face value.
Coupon (or interest) payment is the periodic payment made to bondholders.
Ø Coupon payment (C) = Coupon rate x Face Value
The price of discounted securities is computed as the present value of the face value at a market
determined yield to maturity (YTM).
Yield to maturity is the rate of return earned by an investor who holds the security until it matures
assuming no default occurs on the security.
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑜𝑓
𝑎
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑛
[1 + 𝑥
𝑟? ]
365
Ø If YTM falls, price will increase
Ø If YTM rises, price will fall
𝐶E 1 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑜𝑓
𝑎
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛
𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 1− F
+
𝑟? 1 + 𝑟? 1 + 𝑟? F
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The yield to maturity is also the interest rate that discounts the bond’s future cash flows to equal the
market price today.
Ø It is also called the internal rate of return.
Relationship between Coupon Rates and Yields to Maturity:
Ø When Price = Face Value
o The bond is selling at par
o YTM = Coupon Rate
Ø When Price > Face Value
o The bond is selling at a premium
o YTM < Coupon rate
Ø When Price < Face Value
o The bond is selling at a discount
o YTM > Coupon rate
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The prices of longer maturity bonds are more sensitive to changes in interest rates than the prices of
shorter maturity bonds.
Ø This is because investors have to bear a higher interest rate risk with longer maturity bonds.
Bonds with higher coupon rates are less sensitive to changes in the yield to maturity changes than no-
coupon paying bonds.
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Week 4 – Applications in Financial Mathematics II
Ordinary shares represent ownership in the issuing company’s cash flows (earnings and dividends).
Ø It is first issued and sold in the primary market – typically via an initial public offering
Ø Once listed, it is traded on secondary markets – such as the ASX, NYSE
Ø It provides an infinite stream of earnings and dividends
Ø It has no maturity date
Why dividends and not earnings?
Ø Shareholders care about the cash flow they receive, not what a firm earns.
Ø A firm’s earnings are typically not all paid out as dividends, so we should consider dividends, and
not earnings, when valuing shares.
The General Dividend Discount Model
The Constant Dividend Growth Model
Ø Dividends grow at a constant growth rate (g) forever
The link between earnings and dividends:
𝐷F = 𝛼𝐸F
where 𝛼 is the dividend payout ratio – proportion of earnings paid out as dividends.
Ø If payout ratio doesn’t change over time, the growth rate in dividends will be equal to the growth
rate in earnings.
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Assuming the number of shares outstanding is constant, a firm can increase its dividends by:
Ø Increasing its earnings
Ø Increasing its dividends payout ratio
What can a firm do with their earnings:
Ø Pay them out to shareholders as dividends
Ø Retain the earnings and reinvest them
Any increase in future earnings will result from new investments made from earnings retained by the firm.
Ø Change in earnings = New investment x Return on new investment
Ø Earnings: New Investment / Retention rate
Ø Growth = Retention rate x Return on new investment
There is an implication that lowering dividend to increase investment will raise the stock price, if, and
only if, the new investments have a positive NPV.
Calculating Share Price at t=0:
1. Obtain dividends up to where g becomes constant
2. Obtain 𝑃F (after which dividends growth is constant)
3. Add the present values of dividends and the present value of the price at time to get 𝑃K
Preference shares are shares which give their holders preference over ordinary shareholders regarding
the payment of dividends and repayment of capital in case of liquidation.
MN
Ø 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑜𝑓
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑃K =
&N
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The P/E ratio is the ratio of the current market price to expected (or current earnings) per share.
O
Ø Expected (forward) P/E ratio = P
QR
O
Ø Current (trailing) P/E ratio = P
QP
The expected P/E ratio is the amount investors are willing to pay now for $1 of future expected earnings.
This implies as expected P/E ratio rises:
Ø The payout ratio (𝛼 ) rises
Ø The growth rate of dividends (g) rises
Ø The required return on equity (𝑟" ) falls
If a firm’s earnings and dividends do not grow (g=0) and it pays out all earnings (𝛼 = 1) as dividends, the
QR
price is 𝑃K = .
&T
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WEEK 5 – Modern Portfolio Theory and Asset Pricing I
Ordinary Shares Returns
Bond Returns
Arithmetic average return measures the return earned from a single, one period investment over a
specific time horizon.
Geometric average return measure the return earned per period from an investment over an investor’s
entire time horizon.
If returns are constant (example: returns are always 10%), geometric return = average return.
The observed (realized) risk of a security is measured by the variability in its realized returns around the
arithmetic average return.
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Least to Most Risky Investments:
Ø Treasury bills
Ø Corporate bonds
Ø World Portfolio
Ø Standard & Poor’s 500
Ø Small stocks
The expected return is the expected outcome measured as the weighted average of the individual
outcomes.
The variance or standard deviation of returns is the measure of dispersion around the expected return.
Ø The greater the dispersion, the higher the uncertainty and risk.
Ø Variance and standard deviation take into account returns above and below the expected return.
Investors are typically concerned with returns below the expected return (downside risk).
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Investors are assumed to be risk averse.
Ø The higher the variance or standard deviation of returns the worse off the investor
Ø Their objective is to minimize the risk of portfolio of investments given a desired level of expected
return;; or to maximize the expected return of portfolio of investments given a desired level of risk.
Portfolio risk falls as the number of securities in the portfolio increases.
Ø However, portfolio risk can’t be entirely eliminated
Ø The risk that can’t be eliminated is called systematic risk
A portfolio’s expected return is the weighted average of the component securities’ expected returns.
Ø Weights are percentages of the investor’s original wealth invested in each security.
Ø It is assumed all funds are invested in two securities.
A portfolio’s variance is the weighted average of the variance of its component securities and the
covariance between the securities’ returns.
Ø The first and second term can only be positive
Ø The last term can be negative, positive, or zero
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Positive covariance (𝜎EW > 0)
Ø Above (below) average returns on security 1 tend to coincide with above (below) average returns
on security 2.
Negative covariance (𝜎EW < 0)
Ø Above (below) average returns on security 1 tend to coincide with below (above) average returns
on security 2.
Covariance = 0 (𝜎EW = 0)
Ø Security 1’s return tends to move independently of security 2’s return.
Ø i.e. security 2 is a risk-free security.
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The risk-return trade-off in a two-security portfolio depends on the level of co-movement (or correlation)
between their returns.
Ø Return correlation of +1 (perfect positive correlation)
o 𝜌EW = +1
o There are no gains from diversification in this case as the portfolio’s risk (standard
deviation) is a weighted-average of the risks (standard deviations) of the two securities
Ø Return correlation of –1 (perfect negative correlation)
o 𝜌EW = −1
o There will be maximum gains from diversification
o It is possible to construct a zero-risk portfolio
Ø Return correlation between +1 and –1 (general case)
o −1 < 𝜌EW < +1
o Some diversification benefits always exist
o
o The diversification benefit depends on the correlation of returns;;
§ The lower the correlation, the higher the diversification benefits
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In the case where there is a perfect negative correlation and the minimum variance (or standard
deviation) of the portfolio is 0 (𝜎\ = 0), the standard deviation expression is simplified into:
Ø 𝟎 = 𝝈𝒑 = 𝒙𝟏 𝝈𝟏 − (𝟏 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝝈𝟐 )
Portfolio leveraging is the strategy where an investor borrows funds at the risk-free rate of return and
invests all the available funds in a risky security (or portfolio).
Ø The more we borrow, the riskier the investment gets.
Short selling refers to borrowing shares, and selling them now with a contractual promise to buy them
back later at (an expected) lower price.
Ø This method of leveraging increases portfolio risk!
Ø Borrowing and short selling security A and investing proceeds in security B implies 𝑥c < 0% and
𝑥e > 100% such that 𝑥c +
𝑥e = 1.
Portfolio leveraging and short selling increases the expected return of a portfolio and the risk
associated with that portfolio!
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