Explosion

explosions

An explosion is a rapid expansion in volume associated with an extremely vigorous outward release
of energy, usually with the generation of high temperatures and release of high-
pressure gases. Supersonic explosions created by high explosives are known as detonations and
travel through shock waves. Subsonic explosions are created by low explosives through a
slower combustion process known as deflagration.

Contents

1 Causes
1.1 Astronomical
1.2 Chemical
1.3 Electrical and magnetic
1.4 Mechanical and vapor
1.5 Nuclear: Nuclear explosion and Effects of nuclear explosions
2 Properties
2.1 Force
2.2 Velocity
2.3 Evolution of heat
2.4 Initiation of reaction
2.5 Fragmentation
3 Notable examples
3.1 Chemical
3.2 Nuclear
3.3 Volcanic
3.4 Stellar

 Combustion
 Deflagration
 Detonation
 Dust explosion
 Standards for electrical equipment in potentially explosive environments
 Explosion protection
 Explosive limit
 Fuel tank explosion
 Implosion (mechanical process): opposite of explosion
 Internal combustion engine
 Mushroom cloud
 Piston engine
 Plofkraak
 Total body disruption, a cause of death typically associated with explosion
 Underwater explosion
Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions

Chemical

 Nanaimo mine explosion 1887

 Halifax Explosion 1917
 Battle of Messines 1917
 Oppau explosion, Ludwigshafen, Germany 1921
 1944 Bombay explosion
 Port Chicago disaster 1944
 RAF Fauld explosion 1944
 Cádiz Explosion 1947
 Texas City disaster 1947

 Nedelin catastrophe 1960

 Soviet N1 rocket explosion 1969
 Flixborough disaster 1974
 PEPCON disaster, Henderson, Nevada 1988
 Port Neal fertilizer plant explosion 1994
 AZF (factory), Toulouse, France 2001
 Ryongchon disaster 2004
 2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire
 2008 Gërdec explosions
 2009 Cataño oil refinery fire
 West Fertilizer Company explosion 2013
 2015 Tianjin explosions
 2020 Beirut explosions

Nuclear explosion
 Trinity test
 Ivy Mike
 Castle Bravo
 Tsar Bomba
 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Volcanic
rocks, soil, or sand
Volcanic Explosive Index

 Santorini
 Krakatoa
 Mount St. Helens
 Mount Tambora
 Mount Pinatubo
 Toba catastrophe theory
 Yellowstone Caldera

Explosive weapon
An explosive weapon generally uses high explosive to project blast and/or fragmentation from a
point of detonation.

Explosive weapons may be subdivided by their method of manufacture into explosive ordnance
and improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Certain types of explosive ordnance and many
improvised explosive devices are sometimes referred to under the generic term bomb.

When explosive weapons fail to function as designed they are often left as unexploded ordnance
(UXO).

In the common practice of states, explosive weapons are generally the preserve of the military,
for use in situations of armed conflict, and are rarely used for purposes of domestic policing.
Certain types of explosive weapons may be categorised as light weapons (e.g. hand-held under-
barrel and mounted grenade launchers, portable launchers of anti-tank missile and rocket
systems; portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS); and mortars of
calibres of less than 100 mm). Many explosive weapons, such as aircraft bombs, rocket systems,
artillery and larger mortars, are categorised as heavy weapons.

Taken in combination, Amended Protocol II and Protocol V to the United Nations Convention
on Certain Conventional Weapons establish a responsibility on the users of explosive weapons to
record and retain information on their use of such weapons (including the location of use and the
type and quantity of weapons used), to provide such information to parties in control of territory
that may be affected by UXO, and to assist with the removal of this threat.

Certain types of explosive weapon have been subject to prohibition in international treaties. The
Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868 prohibits the use of certain explosive rifle projectiles. This
prohibition has evolved into a ban on 'exploding bullets' under customary international
humanitarian law binding on all States. The 1997 Mine Ban Treaty and the 2008 Convention on
Cluster Munitions also prohibit types of explosive weapons, anti-personnel landmines and cluster
munitions, for states parties to these treaties.

In armed conflict, the general rules of international humanitarian law governing the conduct of
hostilities apply to the use of all types of explosive weapons as means or methods of warfare.

The Secretary-General of the United Nations has expressed increasing concern at "the
humanitarian impact of explosive weapons, in particular when used in densely populated areas."
The President of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Jakob Kellenberger has
noted that "ICRC’s key operations in 2009 – in the Gaza Strip and in Sri Lanka – provided stark
illustrations of the potentially devastating humanitarian consequences of military operations
conducted in densely populated areas, especially when heavy or highly explosive weapons are
used."

An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of
potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the
production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An explosive charge is a measured quantity of
explosive material, which may either be composed solely of one ingredient or be a mixture
containing at least two substances.

The potential energy stored in an explosive material may, for example, be

 chemical energy, such as nitroglycerin or grain dust

 pressurized gas, such as a gas cylinder, aerosol can, or BLEVE
 nuclear energy, such as in the fissile isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239

Explosive materials may be categorized by the speed at which they expand. Materials that
detonate (the front of the chemical reaction moves faster through the material than the speed of
sound) are said to be "high explosives" and materials that deflagrate are said to be "low
explosives". Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can
be initiated by a relatively small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives and materials
that are relatively insensitive are secondary or tertiary explosives.

A wide variety of chemicals can explode; a smaller number are manufactured specifically for the
purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic,
expensive, unstable, or prone to decomposition or degradation over short time spans.

In contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding.

The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp. Certain materials—dusts, powders, gases, or

volatile organic liquids—may be simply combustible or flammable under ordinary conditions,
but become explosive in specific situations or forms, such as dispersed airborne clouds, or
confinement or sudden release.

History
At its roots, the history of chemical explosives lies in the history of gunpowder. During the Tang
Dynasty in the 9th century, Taoist Chinese alchemists were eagerly trying to find the elixir of
immortality. In the process, they stumbled upon the explosive invention of gunpowder made
from coal, saltpeter, and sulfur in 1044. Gunpowder was the first form of chemical explosives
and by 1161, the Chinese were using explosives for the first time in warfare. The Chinese would
incorporate explosives fired from bamboo or bronze tubes known as bamboo fire crackers. The
Chinese also inserted live rats inside the bamboo fire crackers; when fired toward the enemy, the
flaming rats created great psychological ramifications—scaring enemy soldiers away and
causing cavalry units to go wild.

Though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first
widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century in China
by Song Chinese alchemists. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious
amounts of dark smoke. The first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin,
developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by
nitrocellulose, trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867 and gelignite
(the latter two being sophisticated stabilized preparations of nitroglycerin rather than chemical
alternatives, both invented by Alfred Nobel). World War I saw the adoption of TNT in artillery
shells. World War II saw an extensive use of new explosives (see List of explosives used during
World War II). In turn, these have largely been replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-
4 and PETN. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-
4 and PETN are waterproof and malleable.

Types of explosives
1. Chemical explosives

An explosion is a type of spontaneous chemical reaction that, once initiated, is driven by both a
large exothermic change (great release of heat) and a large positive entropy change (great
quantities of gases are released) in going from reactants to products, thereby constituting a
thermodynamically favorable process in addition to one that propagates very rapidly. Thus,
explosives are substances that contain a large amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. The
energetic stability of the gaseous products and hence their generation comes from the formation
of strongly bonded species like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and (di)nitrogen, which
contain strong double and triple bonds having bond strengths of nearly 1 MJ/mole.
Consequently, most commercial explosives are organic compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and
-NHNO2 groups that, when detonated, release gases like the aforementioned (e.g., nitroglycerin or
nitroglycerin, TNT, HMX, PETN, nitrocellulose).

An explosive is classified as a low or high explosive according to its rate of combustion: low
explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate), while high explosives detonate. While these definitions
are distinct, the problem of precisely measuring rapid decomposition makes practical
classification of explosives difficult.

Traditional explosives mechanics is based on the shock-sensitive rapid oxidation of carbon and
hydrogen to carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water in the form of steam. Nitrates typically
provide the required oxygen to burn the carbon and hydrogen fuel. High explosives tend to have
the oxygen, carbon and hydrogen contained in one organic molecule, and less sensitive
explosives like ANFO are combinations of fuel (carbon and hydrogen fuel oil) and ammonium
nitrate. A sensitizer such as powdered aluminum may be added to an explosive to increase the
energy of the detonation. Once detonated, the nitrogen portion of the explosive formulation
emerges as nitrogen gas and toxic nitric oxides.

Decomposition
The chemical decomposition of an explosive may take years, days, hours, or a fraction of a second.
The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability
standpoint. Of more interest are the other two rapid forms besides decomposition: deflagration and
detonation.
Deflagration
Deflagration
In deflagration, decomposition of the explosive material is propagated by a flame front which moves
slowly through the explosive material at speeds less than the speed of sound within the substance
(usually below 1000 m/s) in contrast to detonation, which occurs at speeds greater than the speed of
sound. Deflagration is a characteristic of low explosive material.
Detonation
Detonation
This term is used to describe an explosive phenomenon whereby the decomposition
is propagated by an explosive shock wave traversing the explosive material at speeds greater than
the speed of sound within the substance. The shock front is capable of passing through the high
explosive material at supersonic speeds, typically thousands of metres per second.

2. Exotic/ nuclear explosives

nuclear weapon

In addition to chemical explosives, there are a number of more exotic explosive materials, and
exotic methods of causing explosions. Examples include nuclear explosives, and abruptly
heating a substance to a plasma state with a high-intensity laser or electric arc.

Laser- and arc-heating are used in laser detonators, exploding-bridgewire detonators, and
exploding foil initiators, where a shock wave and then detonation in conventional chemical
explosive material is created by laser- or electric-arc heating. Laser and electric energy are not
currently used in practice to generate most of the required energy, but only to initiate reactions.

Applications
Commercial
The largest commercial application of explosives is mining.

In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding (explosion

welding). A thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material,
both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive. At one end of
the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced
together at high speed and with great force. The explosion spreads from the initiation
site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the
two layers.

Military
Explosive weapon

Civilian
Explosives engineering

Safety
Explosives safety

Properties
To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for a particular use,
its physical properties must first be known. The usefulness of an explosive can only be appreciated
when the properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Some of the more important
characteristics are listed below:

Sensitivity
Sensitivity (explosives)
Sensitivity refers to the ease with which an explosive can be ignited or detonated, i.e., the amount
and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required. When the term sensitivity is used, care must
be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given
explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods
used to determine sensitivity relate to:

 Impact – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must
be dropped onto the material to cause it to explode.
 Friction – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the amount of pressure applied to the material in
order to create enough friction to cause a reaction.
 Heat – Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which decomposition of the
material occurs.
Specific explosives (usually but not always highly sensitive on one or more of the three above axes)
may be idiosyncratically sensitive to such factors as pressure drop, acceleration, the presence of
sharp edges or rough surfaces, incompatible materials, or even—in rare cases—nuclear or
electromagnetic radiation. These factors present special hazards that may rule out any practical
utility.
Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The
explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would
cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired. The explosive lenses around nuclear
charges are also designed to be highly insensitive, to minimize the risk of accidental detonation

Sensitivity to initiation
The index of the capacity of an explosive to be initiated into detonation in a sustained manner. It is
defined by the power of the detonator which is certain to prime the explosive to a sustained and
continuous detonation. Reference is made to the Sellier-Bellot scale that consists of a series of 10
detonators, from n. 1 to n. 10, each of which corresponds to an increasing charge weight. In
practice, most of the explosives on the market today are sensitive to an n. 8 detonator, where the
charge corresponds to 2 grams of mercury fulminate.

Velocity of detonation

The velocity with which the reaction process propagates in the mass of the explosive. Most
commercial mining explosives have detonation velocities ranging from 1800 m/s to 8000 m/s. Today,
velocity of detonation can be measured with accuracy. Together with density it is an important
element influencing the yield of the energy transmitted for both atmospheric over-pressure and
ground acceleration. By definition, a "low explosive", such as black powder, or smokeless
gunpowder has a burn rate of 171–631 m/s.[12] In contrast, a "high explosive", whether a primary,
such as detonating cord, or a secondary, such as TNT or C-4 has a significantly higher burn rate.[13]

Stability
Chemical stability
Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration.
The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:

 Chemical constitution. In the strictest technical sense, the word "stability" is a thermodynamic
term referring to the energy of a substance relative to a reference state or to some other
substance. However, in the context of explosives, stability commonly refers to ease of
detonation, which is concerned with kinetics (i.e., rate of decomposition). It is perhaps best,
then, to differentiate between the terms thermodynamically stable and kinetically stable by
referring to the former as "inert." Contrarily, a kinetically unstable substance is said to be "labile."
It is generally recognized that certain groups like nitro (–NO2), nitrate (–ONO2), and azide (–N3),
are intrinsically labile. Kinetically, there exists a low activation barrier to the decomposition
reaction. Consequently, these compounds exhibit high sensitivity to flame or mechanical shock.
The chemical bonding in these compounds is characterized as predominantly covalent and thus
they are not thermodynamically stabilized by a high ionic-lattice energy. Furthermore, they
generally have positive enthalpies of formation and there is little mechanistic hindrance to
internal molecular rearrangement to yield the more thermodynamically stable (more strongly
 bonded) decomposition products. For example, in lead azide, Pb(N3)2, the nitrogen atoms are
already bonded to one another, so decomposition into Pb and N2[1] is relatively easy.
 Temperature of storage. The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher
temperatures. All standard military explosives may be considered to have a high degree of
stability at temperatures from –10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which its rate
of decomposition rapidly accelerates and stability is reduced. As a rule of thumb, most
explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures above 70 °C.
 Exposure to sunlight. When exposed to the ultraviolet rays of sunlight, many explosive
compounds containing nitrogen groups rapidly decompose, affecting their stability.
 Electrical discharge. Electrostatic or spark sensitivity to initiation is common in a number of
explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to cause a reaction, even
detonation, under some circumstances. As a result, safe handling of explosives
and pyrotechnics usually requires proper electrical grounding of the operator.
Power, performance, and strength
Power (physics) and Strength (explosive)
The term power or performance as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In
practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy
delivery (i.e., fragment projection, air blast, high-velocity jet, underwater shock and bubble energy,
etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the
material for its intended use. Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are
common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications.

 Cylinder expansion test. A standard amount of explosive is loaded into a long hollow cylinder,
usually of copper, and detonated at one end. Data is collected concerning the rate of radial
expansion of the cylinder and the maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes
the Gurney energy or 2E.
 Cylinder fragmentation. A standard steel cylinder is loaded with explosive and detonated in a
sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed.
 Detonation pressure (Chapman–Jouguet condition). Detonation pressure data derived from
measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive
charges of a standard size.
 Determination of critical diameter. This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge
of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the
detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave
propagation is observed.
 Massive-diameter detonation velocity. Detonation velocity is dependent on loading density
(c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting
explosive phenomena does not include the diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation
velocity, for a massive diameter. This procedure requires the firing of a series of charges of the
same density and physical structure, but different diameters, and the extrapolation of the
resulting detonation velocities to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of a massive
diameter.
 Pressure versus scaled distance. A charge of a specific size is detonated and its pressure
effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with those for TNT.
 Impulse versus scaled distance. A charge of a specific size is detonated and its impulse (the
area under the pressure-time curve) measured as a function of distance. The results are
tabulated and expressed as TNT equivalents.
 Relative bubble energy (RBE). A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric
gauges measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy.
The RBE may be defined as Kx 3
RBE = Ks
 where K = the bubble expansion period for an experimental (x) or a standard (s) charge.
Brisance
Brisance
In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or
brisance (from the French meaning to "break"), which is distinguished and separate from their total
work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an
explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, grenades, and the like. The rapidity with which an
explosive reaches its peak pressure (power) is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are
primarily employed in France and Russia.
The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT.
No test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is
important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to
gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison require field experiments.

Density
Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading
are available, including pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading, the choice being determined
by the characteristics of the explosive. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density
of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80–99% of the theoretical maximum density of
the explosive. High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to
internal friction. However, if density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the
explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more
explosive, thereby increasing the power of the warhead. It is possible to compress an explosive
beyond a point of sensitivity, known also as dead-pressing, in which the material is no longer
capable of being reliably initiated, if at all.

Volatility
Volatility is the readiness with which a substance vaporizes. Excessive volatility often results in the
development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their
constituents. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked
reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling.

Hygroscopicity and water resistance

The introduction of water into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity,
strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. Hygroscopicity is a measure of a material's
moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material
that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired
chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials
that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during
detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by
the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition,
causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container.
Explosives considerably differ from one another as to their behavior in the presence of water. Gelatin
dynamites containing nitroglycerine have a degree of water resistance. Explosives based
on ammonium nitrate have little or no water resistance as ammonium nitrate is highly soluble in
water and is hygroscopic.

Toxicity
Many explosives are toxic to some extent. Manufacturing inputs can also be organic compounds or
hazardous materials that require special handing due to risks (such as carcinogens). The
decomposition products, residual solids, or gases of some explosives can be toxic, whereas others
are harmless, such as carbon dioxide and water.
Examples of harmful by-products are:

 Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, and barium from primers (observed in high-volume firing
ranges)
 Nitric oxides from TNT
 Perchlorates when used in large quantities
"Green explosives" seek to reduce environment and health impacts. An example of such is the lead-
free primary explosive copper(I) 5-nitrotetrazolate, an alternative to lead azide. One variety of a
green explosive is CDP explosives, whose synthesis does not involve any toxic ingredients,
consumes carbon dioxide while detonating and does not release any nitric oxides into the
atmosphere when used.

Explosive train
Explosive train
Explosive material may be incorporated in the explosive train of a device or system. An example is a
pyrotechnic lead igniting a booster, which causes the main charge to detonate.

Volume of products of explosion

The most widely used explosives are condensed liquids or solids converted to gaseous products by
explosive chemical reactions and the energy released by those reactions. The gaseous products of
complete reaction are typically carbon dioxide, steam, and nitrogen.[15] Gaseous volumes computed
by the ideal gas law tend to be too large at high pressures characteristic of explosions.[16] Ultimate
volume expansion may be estimated at three orders of magnitude, or one liter per gram of explosive.
Explosives with an oxygen deficit will generate soot or gases like carbon monoxide and hydrogen,
which may react with surrounding materials such as atmospheric oxygen.[15] Attempts to obtain more
precise volume estimates must consider the possibility of such side reactions, condensation of
steam, and aqueous solubility of gases like carbon dioxide.[17]
By comparison, CDP detonation is based on the rapid reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon with the
abundant release of energy. Rather than produce typical waste gases like carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen and nitric oxides, CDP is different. Instead, the highly energetic reduction of
carbon dioxide to carbon vaporizes and pressurizes excess dry ice at the wave front, which is the
only gas released from the detonation. The velocity of detonation for CDP formulations can therefore
be customized by adjusting the weight percentage of reducing agent and dry ice. CDP detonations
produce a large amount of solid materials that can have great commercial value as an abrasive:
Example – CDP Detonation Reaction with Magnesium: XCO2 + 2Mg → 2MgO + C + (X-1)CO2
The products of detonation in this example are magnesium oxide, carbon in various phases
including diamond, and vaporized excess carbon dioxide that was not consumed by the amount of
magnesium in the explosive formulation.[18]

Oxygen balance (OB% or Ω)

Oxygen balance
Oxygen balance is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be
oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon
dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule
is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it
contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than
is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon
oxygen balance and tend to approach their maxima as oxygen balance approaches zero.
Oxygen balance applies to traditional explosives mechanics with the assumption that carbon is
oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide during detonation. In what seems like a paradox to
an explosives expert, Cold Detonation Physics uses carbon in its most highly oxidized state as the
source of oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide. Oxygen balance, therefore, either does not apply to
a CDP formulation or must be calculated without including the carbon in the carbon dioxide.

Chemical composition
A chemical explosive may consist of either a chemically pure compound, such as nitroglycerin, or a
mixture of a fuel and an oxidizer, such as black powder or grain dust and air.

Pure compounds

Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point
of detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules
(generally gases) with the release of energy.

 Nitroglycerin: A highly unstable and sensitive liquid

 Acetone peroxide: A very unstable white organic peroxide
 TNT: Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation
 Cellulose nitrate: A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on
nitration level and conditions
 RDX, PETN, HMX: Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic
explosives
o C-4 (or Composition C-4): An RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive
and malleable

The above compositions may describe most of the explosive material, but a practical explosive
will often include small percentages of other substances. For example, dynamite is a mixture of
highly sensitive nitroglycerin with sawdust, powdered silica, or most commonly diatomaceous
earth, which acts as stabilizers. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of
explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminium
powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effects. Explosive compounds are
also often "alloyed": HMX or RDX powders may be mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT
to form Octol or Cyclotol.

Oxidized fuel

An oxidizer is a pure substance (molecule) that in a chemical reaction can contribute some atoms
of one or more oxidizing elements, in which the fuel component of the explosive burns. On the
simplest level, the oxidizer may itself be an oxidizing element, such as gaseous or liquid oxygen.

 Black powder: Potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur

  Flash powder: Fine metal powder (usually aluminium or magnesium) and a strong
oxidizer (e.g. potassium chlorate or perchlorate)
 Ammonal: Ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder
 Armstrong's mixture: Potassium chlorate and red phosphorus. This is a very sensitive
mixture. It is a primary high explosive in which sulfur is substituted for some or all of the
phosphorus to slightly decrease sensitivity.
 Cold Detonation Physics: Combinations of carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice (an
untraditional oxygen source), and powdered reducing agents (fuel) like magnesium and
aluminum.
 Sprengel explosives: A very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly
reactive fuel, although in practice the name was most commonly applied to mixtures of
chlorates and nitroaromatics.
o ANFO: Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil
o Cheddites: Chlorates or perchlorates and oil
o Oxyliquits: Mixtures of organic materials and liquid oxygen
o Panclastites: Mixtures of organic materials and dinitrogen tetroxide

Availability and cost

The availability and cost of explosives are determined by the availability of the raw
materials and the cost, complexity, and safety of the manufacturing operations.

Classification
By sensitivity
Primary
A primary explosive is an explosive that is extremely sensitive to stimuli such
as impact, friction, heat, static electricity, or electromagnetic radiation. Some primary explosives are
also known as contact explosives. A relatively small amount of energy is required for initiation. As a
very general rule, primary explosives are considered to be those compounds that are more sensitive
than PETN. As a practical measure, primary explosives are sufficiently sensitive that they can be
reliably initiated with a blow from a hammer; however, PETN can also usually be initiated in this
manner, so this is only a very broad guideline. Additionally, several compounds, such as nitrogen
triiodide, are so sensitive that they cannot even be handled without detonating. Nitrogen triiodide is
so sensitive that it can be reliably detonated by exposure to alpha radiation; it is the only explosive
for which this is true.
Primary explosives are often used in detonators or to trigger larger charges of less
sensitive secondary explosives. Primary explosives are commonly used in blasting
caps and percussion caps to translate a physical shock signal. In other situations, different signals
such as electrical or physical shock, or, in the case of laser detonation systems, light, are used to
initiate an action, i.e., an explosion. A small quantity, usually milligrams, is sufficient to initiate a
larger charge of explosive that is usually safer to handle.
Examples of primary high explosives are:

 Acetone peroxide
 Alkali metal ozonides
 Ammonium permanganate
 Ammonium chlorate
 Azidotetrazolates
 Azoclathrates
 Benzoyl peroxide
 Benzvalene
 3,5-Bis(trinitromethyl)tetrazole
 Chlorine oxides
 Copper(I) acetylide
 Copper(II) azide
 Cumene hydroperoxide
 CXP CycloProp(-2-)enyl Nitrate (or CPN)
 Cyanogen azide
 Cyanuric triazide
 Diacetyl peroxide
 1-Diazidocarbamoyl-5-azidotetrazole
 Diazodinitrophenol
 Diazomethane
 Diethyl ether peroxide
 4-Dimethylaminophenylpentazole
 Disulfur dinitride
 Ethyl azide
 Explosive antimony
 Fluorine perchlorate
 Fulminic acid
 Halogen azides:
o Fluorine azide
o Chlorine azide
o Bromine azide
o Iodine azide
 Hexamethylene triperoxide diamine
 Hydrazoic acid
 Hypofluorous acid
 Lead azide
 Lead styphnate
 Lead picrate
 Manganese heptoxide
 Mercury(II) fulminate
 Mercury nitride
 Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
 Nickel hydrazine nitrate
 Nickel hydrazine perchlorate
 Nitrogen trihalides:
o Nitrogen trichloride
o Nitrogen tribromide
o Nitrogen triiodide
 Nitroglycerin
 Nitronium perchlorate
 Nitrosyl perchlorate
 Nitrotetrazolate-N-oxides
 Octaazacubane
 Pentazenium hexafluoroarsenate
 Peroxy acids
 Peroxymonosulfuric acid
 Selenium tetraazide
 Silicon tetraazide
 Silver azide
 Silver acetylide
 Silver fulminate
 Silver nitride
 Tellurium tetraazide
 tert-Butyl hydroperoxide
 Tetraamine copper complexes
 Tetraazidomethane
 Tetrazene explosive
 Tetranitratoxycarbon
 Tetrazoles
 Titanium tetraazide
 Triazidomethane
 Oxides of xenon:
o Xenon dioxide
o Xenon oxytetrafluoride
o Xenon tetroxide
o Xenon trioxide
Secondary
A secondary explosive is less sensitive than a primary explosive and requires substantially more
energy to be initiated. Because they are less sensitive, they are usable in a wider variety of
applications and are safer to handle and store. Secondary explosives are used in larger quantities in
an explosive train and are usually initiated by a smaller quantity of a primary explosive.
Examples of secondary explosives include TNT and RDX.
Tertiary
Tertiary explosives, also called blasting agents, are so insensitive to shock that they cannot be
reliably detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an
intermediate explosive booster of secondary explosive. These are often used for safety and the
typically lower costs of material and handling. The largest consumers are large-
scale mining and construction operations.
Most tertiaries include a fuel and an oxidizer. ANFO can be a tertiary explosive if its reaction rate is
slow.

By velocity
Low
Low explosives are compounds wherein the rate of decomposition proceeds through the material at
less than the speed of sound. The decomposition is propagated by a flame front (deflagration) which
travels much more slowly through the explosive material than a shock wave of a high
explosive. Under normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates that vary from a
few centimetres per second to approximately 0.4 kilometres per second (1,300 ft/s). It is possible for
them to deflagrate very quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation. This can happen under
higher pressure (such as when gunpowder deflagrates inside the confined space of a bullet casing,
accelerating the bullet to well beyond the speed of sound) or temperature.
A low explosive is usually a mixture of a combustible substance and an oxidant that decomposes
rapidly (deflagration); however, they burn more slowly than a high explosive, which has an extremely
fast burn rate.
Low explosives are normally employed as propellants. Included in this group are petroleum products
such as propane and gasoline, gunpowder (including smokeless powder), and light pyrotechnics,
such as flares and fireworks, but can replace high explosives in certain applications, see gas
pressure blasting.
High
High explosives (HE) are explosive materials that detonate, meaning that the explosive shock
front passes through the material at a supersonic speed. High explosives detonate with explosive
velocity of about 3–9 kilometres per second (9,800–29,500 ft/s). For instance, TNT has a detonation
(burn) rate of approximately 5.8 km/s (19,000 feet per second), detonating cord of 6.7 km/s (22,000
feet per second), and C-4 about 8.5 km/s (29,000 feet per second). They are normally employed in
mining, demolition, and military applications. They can be divided into two explosives classes
differentiated by sensitivity: primary explosive and secondary explosive. The term high explosive is
in contrast with the term low explosive, which explodes (deflagrates) at a lower rate.
Countless high-explosive compounds are chemically possible, but commercially and militarily
important ones have included NG, TNT, TNX, RDX, HMX, PETN, TATB, and HNS.

By physical form
Use forms of explosives
Explosives are often characterized by the physical form that the explosives are produced or used in.
These use forms are commonly categorized as:

 Pressings
 Castings
 Plastic or polymer bonded
 Plastic explosives, a.k.a. putties
 Rubberized
 Extrudable
 Binary
 Blasting agents
 Slurries and gels
 Dynamites
Shipping label classifications
Class 1: Explosives: Dynamite, Trinitrotoluene (TNT), ANFO (ammonium nitrate/fuel oil)

Display/commercial grade fireworks, rocket propellant

Consumer fireworks, ammunition, railway fog signals (detonators/torpedo), model rocket motors

Hazardous material includes

 radioactive, flammable, explosive, corrosive, oxidizing, asphyxiating, biohazardous, toxic, pathog
enic, or allergenic

Class 1 Explosives

1.1 — Explosives with a mass explosion hazard (ANFO, TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine)
1.2 — Explosives with a severe or blast/projection hazard
1.3 — Explosives with a minor blast hazard includes ammunition, most display fireworks,
rocket propellants, composite propellants, solid propellant rocket motors
1.4 — Explosives with a major fire hazard (consumer fireworks, ammunition)
1.5 — blasting agents an insensitive substance with a mass explosion hazard
1.6 — extremely insensitive explosives

hypergolic

detonation

secondary detonating explosive

Class 2: Gases:

Gases which are compressed, liquefied or dissolved under pressure as detailed below. Some gases
have subsidiary risk classes; poisonous or corrosive.

 2.1 Flammable Gas: Gases which ignite on contact with an ignition source, such
as acetylene, hydrogen, and propane.
 2.2 Non-Flammable Gases: Gases which are neither flammable nor poisonous. Includes the
cryogenic gases/liquids (temperatures of below -100 °C) used for cryopreservation and rocket
fuels, such as nitrogen, neon, and carbon dioxide.
 2.3 Poisonous Gases: Gases liable to cause death or serious injury to human health if inhaled;
examples are fluorine, chlorine, and hydrogen cyanide.

Hygroscopic

Class 3: Flammable Liquids

Flammable liquids included in Class 3 are included in one of the following packing groups:

 Packing Group I, if they have an initial boiling point of 35°C or less at an absolute pressure of
101.3 kPa and any flash point, such as diethyl ether or carbon disulfide;
 Packing Group II, if they have an initial boiling point greater than 35°C at an absolute pressure of
101.3 kPa and a flash point less than 23°C, such as gasoline (petrol) and acetone; or
 Packing Group III, if the criteria for inclusion in Packing Group I or II are not met, such
as kerosene and diesel.
Note: For further details, check the Dangerous Goods Transportation Regulations of the country of
interest.
Class 4: Flammable Solids

4.1 Flammable Solids: Solid substances that are easily ignited and readily combustible
(nitrocellulose, magnesium, safety or strike-anywhere matches).

4.2 Spontaneously Combustible: Solid substances that ignite

spontaneously (aluminium alkyls, white phosphorus).

4.3 Dangerous when Wet: Solid substances that emit a flammable gas when wet or react violently
with water (sodium, calcium, potassium, calcium carbide).

Class 5: Oxidizing Agents and Organic Peroxides

5.1 Oxidizing agents other than organic peroxides (calcium hypochlorite, ammonium
nitrate, hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate).

5.2 Organic peroxides, either in liquid or solid form (benzoyl peroxides, cumene hydroperoxide).

Class 6: Toxic and Infectious Substances

 6.1a Toxic substances which are liable to cause death or serious injury to human health if
inhaled, swallowed or by skin absorption (potassium cyanide, mercuric chloride).
 6.1b (Now PGIII) Toxic substances which are harmful to human health (N.B this symbol is no
longer authorized by the United Nations) (pesticides, methylene chloride).

Class 7: Radioactive substances

Radioactive substances comprise substances or a combination of substances which emit ionizing

radiation (uranium, plutonium).

Class 8: Corrosive substances

Corrosive substances are substances that can dissolve organic tissue or severely corrode certain
metals:

 8.1 Acids: sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid

 8.2 Alkalis: potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide

Class 9: Miscellaneous

Hazardous substances that do not fall into the other categories (asbestos, air-bag inflators, self
inflating life rafts, dry ice).
Compounds

Acetylides

 CUA, DCA, AGA

Fulminates

 HCNO, AUF, HGF, PTF, KF, AGF

Nitro

 MonoNitro: NGA, NE, NM, NP, NS, NU

 DiNitro: DDNP, DNB, DNEU, DNN, DNP, DNPA, DNPH, DNR, DNPD, DNPA, DNC,
DPS, DPA, EDNP, KDNBF, BEAF
 TriNitro: RDX, DATB, TATB, PBS, PBP, TNAL, TNAS, TNB, TNBA, TNC, MC,
TNEF, TNOC, TNOF, TNP, TNT, TNN, TNPG, TNR, BTNEN, BTNEC, SA, API, TNS
 TetraNitro: Tetryl
 OctaNitro: ONC

Nitrates

 Mononitrates: AN, BAN, CAN, MAN, NAN, UN

 Dinitrates: DEGDN, EDDN, EDNA, EGDN, HDN, TEGDN, TAOM
 Trinitrates: BTTN, TMOTN, NG
 Tetranitrates: ETN, PETN, TNOC
 Pentanitrates: XPN
 Hexanitrates: CHN, MHN

Amines

 Tertiary Amines: NTBR, NTCL, NTI, NTS, SEN, AGN

 Diamines: DSDN
 Azides: CNA, CYA, CLA, CUA, EA, FA, HA, PBA, AGA, NAA, RBA, SEA, SIA,
TEA, TAM, TIA
 Tetramines: TZE, TZO, AA
 Pentamines: PZ
 Octamines: OAC, ATA

Peroxides
  AP (TATP), CHP, DAP, DBP, DEP, HMTD, MEKP, TBHP

Oxides

 XOTF, XDIO, XTRO, XTEO

Unsorted

 Alkali metal Ozonides

 Ammonium chlorate
 Ammonium perchlorate
 Ammonium permaganate
 Azidotetrazolates
 Azoclathrates
 Benzvalene
 Chlorine oxides
 DMAPP
 Fluorine perchlorate
 Fulminating gold
 Fulminating silver (several substances)
 Hexafluoroarsenate
 Hypofluorous acid
 Manganese heptoxide
 Mercury nitride
 Nitronium perchlorate
 Nitrotetrazolate-N-Oxides
 Peroxy acids
 Peroxymonosulfuric acid
 Tetramine copper complexes
 Tetrasulfur tetranitride

Mixtures

 Aluminum Orphorite, Amatex, Amatol, Ammonal, Armstrong's mixture, ANFO,

ANNMAL, Astrolite
 Baranol, Baratol, Ballistite, Butyl tetryl
 Carbonite, Composition A, Composition B, Composition C, Composition 1, Composition
2, Composition 3, Composition 4, Composition 5, Composition B, Composition H6,
Cordtex, Cyclotol
 CDP Formulations
 Danubit, Detasheet, Detonating cord, Dualin, Dunnite, Dynamite
 Ecrasite, Ednatol
 Flash powder
 Gelignite, Gunpowder
 Hexanite, Hydromite 600
 Kinetite
  Minol
 Octol, Oxyliquit
 Panclastite, Pentolite, Picratol, PNNM, Pyrotol
 Schneiderite, Semtex, Shellite
 Tannerit simply, Tannerite, Titadine, Tovex, Torpex, Tritonal

Elements and isotopes

 Alkaline earth metals

 Explosive antimony
 Plutonium-239
 Uranium-235

See also
 Binary explosive
 Blast injury
 Detection dog
 Detonation velocity
 Fireworks
 Flame speed
 Gunpowder
 Improvised explosive device
 Insensitive munition
 Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions
 Nuclear weapon
 Orica; largest supplier of commercial explosives
 Pyrotechnics
 Relative effectiveness factor
 TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook

Japanese World War II explosives

Mercury fulminate
Potassium chlorate
Antimony trisulfide

Lead azide

Tetryl

RDX

70% Trinitroanisole
30% HND
TNT

Picric acid

66% Ammonium perchlorate

16% Silicon carbide
12% wood pulp
6% oil

Hygroscopic

Almost all the common explosives listed here were mixtures of several common components:

 Ammonium picrate (Dunnite or explosive D)

 TNT (Trinitrotoluene)
 PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate)
 RDX
 Powdered aluminium.

picrates