EARTH SCIENCE

Gonzales - Stem 2
Pauline

1st Semester | A.Y. 2024-2025

Somayaji Nilakantha, developed a
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF computational system in which planets
THE UNIVERSE
MVMJS, orbited the sun which in turn
orbited the earth.

★ Cosmic Egg Universe - The Hindu ancient ★ Copernicus Universe - By Nicolaus

text “Rigveda” described the Universe as a Copernicus, Galileo supported the
cosmic egg or Brahmanda. All space Copernicus heliocentric model. This model
expands out of a single concentrated positioned the Sun at the center of the
point called Hindu. Universe, motionless, with Earth and the

★ Primordial Universe - By Anaxagoras, the other planets orbiting around it in circular

original state of the cosmos(andyan lang) paths.

and identified by looking at light from the ★ Einsteinian Universe - By Albert Einstein,

cosmic microwave background, the relic The universe is static, dynamically stable,

radiation left over from the Big Bang. neither expanding nor contracting.
★ Big Bang Universe - By Georges Limaitre,
★ Atomic Universe - By Leucippus and
the universe is expanding.
Democritus, Universe is composed of
★ Steady State Universe - By Fred Hoyle,
indestructible building blocks known as
Thomas Gold, and Herman Bondi, the
atoms.
universe expanded but did not change its
★ Aristotelian Universe - By Aristotle, Earth
density.(Cosmic Microwave)
is at the center of the universe.
★ Multiverse - By Hugh Everett, beyond the
Geocentric Theory supports the theory of
observable universe, other universes may
Aristotle.
exist as well.
★ Stoic Universe - By Greek Philosophers,
the universe is like a giant living body.
★ ** Universe - includes all of space, and all
★ Heliocentric Universe - By Aristarchus of
the matter and energy that space contains.
Samos, the sun is the center of the
It even includes time itself and, of course, it
universe and supported by Soleucus of
includes you. Earth and the Moon are part of
Selucia.
the universe, as are the other planets and
★ Ptolemaic Universe - By Claudius
their many dozens of moons.
Ptolemaeus, The planet Earth was the
center of the universe.

★ Abrahamic Universe - By John Philoponus

of Alexandria, the universe is finite in time
and therefore had a beginning.

★ Partially Heliocentric Universe - By

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EARTH SCIENCE ➔ Protects us from the sun’s dangerous

ultraviolet radiation
2 MAJOR REQUIREMENT

➔ Star should survive long enough for its planets ★ GEOSPHERE

to develop life. (greater the mass, greater ➔ Solid part of earth from surface to the
the energy) center of earth it is the largest of the
➔ Planets should exist in the four sphere
Goldilocks/Habitable Zone. ➔ Weathering of rocks, volcanic
activities, rock formation, earth’s
★ Planets with the right temperature enable interior, organic matter from
water to remain in its liquid form. decayed plants and animals and air
and water also occupy the open
FACTORS spaces between solid particles are the
scope of this subsystem.
➔ TEMPERATURE - (15 °C-115°C) if the ★ BIOSPHERE
temperature goes up to 125°C, the � All the life forms of earth
macromolecules will break down. � Plants and animals depend on the
➔ ATMOSPHERE - Gaseous layer that protects environment for the basics of life
us. likewise they help and maintain
★ TROPOSPHERE - weather and planes balance in the ecosystem through
★ STRATOSPHERE - near at o-zone ecological interaction.
★ MESOSPHERE - meteors
★ THERMOSPHERE - aurora
borealis/australis. MINERALS AND ROCKS
★ EXOSPHERE - satellites
➔ ENERGY - sun/chemical energy.
➔ Rocks are used as the first tools and weapons
➔ WATER - necessary to all forms of life. and wherein ancient history has been
➔ NUTRIENTS - make proteins and carbs. recorded.
○ Food Chain outlines who eats whom.
A Food Web is all of the food chains in
an ecosystem.
MINERALS
EARTH SUBSYSTEMS
➔ It is naturally occurring and in-organic
★ HYDROSPHERE ➔ Solid with an orderly crystalline
structure
➔ The water portion of earth ➔ And a definite chemical composition.
continuously moves through the ➔ Minerals are the basic building blocks
of rocks.
water cycle.
➔ It includes the global ocean of about IS COAL MINERAL?
70% of the earth surface. ( water
found in streams, lake... ) ➔ Coal is not classified as a mineral because it
➔ E.g. The hydrosphere is frozen water, comes from organic materials.
such as glaciers and permafrost.
★ ATMOSPHERE
➔ Gaseous envelope of earth or air is
composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, argon and other gasses that
enables us to breath.
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➢ Non Metallic Luster -
“Glossy”.

4. DIAPHANEITY
MAIN ELECTROLYTES IN BODY FLUID ➔ Transparency is the degree to which
light is transmitted.
➔ Opaque - No Light.
➔ SODIUM ➔ Translucent - Light cannot be seen
➔ CHLORINE clearly.
➔ Transparent - Can pass clearly.
➔ MAGNESIUM
➔ CALCIUM 5. HARDNESS
➔ POTASSIUM ➔ Measure of the resistance of a
mineral.
➔ Friedrich Mahs in 1982 - Scale of
** These balance your fluids in your body, maintain Hardness.
your blood's proper PH, and carry electrical signals
6. CLEAVAGE
from nerves to muscles.
➔ Ability to break speatic planes of
weakness to form smooth flat
MINERALOIDS surfaces.

➔ Resembles a mineral. 7. TENACITY

➔ “Minerals wanna be” ; pearl, amber, and jet. ➔ Minerals reaction to stress(break).

PROPERTIES OF MINERAL
MINERALS GROUPS
1. COLOR
➔ Property of minerals that is easiest to
identify. 1. Silicates - Silicon and Oxygen
➔ Light is reflected by our eyes. 2. Oxicles - Oxygen Anion (o2-)
➔ A mineral can change due to different
3. Sulfates - Sulfur/Oxygen
chemical reactions.
4. Sulfides - Sulfur/Metal
2. STREAK 5. Carbonates - (CO3)2 - Anion
➔ Color of the mineral in powder form. 6. Native Elements - Individual
➔ More useful in identifying minerals.
➔ Streak is more reliable.
THE SCHOOL OF ROCKS
3. LUSTER
AND MINERAL
➔ Quality and intensity of reflected
light.
★ ROCKS
➔ “Looks Shiny”
➔ Naturally occurring aggregate of
➔ Classification:
minerals.
➢ Metallic Luster - Describes
➔ Natural building blocks of earth's
the amount of light that
litosphere.
reflects off the metal.
➢ Submetallic Luster - ★ STONE
Resembles metal but is less ➔ Building block of rocks
reflective. ➔ Often used for building
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➢ Deposition - sediment flows
through surface water from
areas of high elevation to
areas of low elevation.

★ PETROLOGY ➢ Compaction - process by

➔ Study of the earth that deals with the which sedimentary rocks are
origin, structure, occurrence, and buried under other sediment
history of rocks. and are then pushed together.

➢ Cementation - process where

1.0 3 TYPES OF ROCKS sediment is chemically glued
together when minerals
★ IGNEOUS ROCK precipitate from the water
they are dissolved in and fill
➔ When molten rock material cools and
the pore space between
solidifies it becomes an igneous rock.
compressed sediment.
➔ Molten rock matter below Earths’
➜ Coal, Limestone, and Shale.
surface is called magma, whereas
molten rock material at the surface is
known specifically as lava.
★ METAMORPHIC ROCK
➔ Extrusive Rocks - Molten material
that solidifies at Earth’s surface ➔ Enormous heat and pressure deep in
creates extrusive igneous rock, also Earth’s crust can alter
called volcanic rock. It is made from (metamorphose) an existing rock into
lava. Rhyolite, andesite, and basalt a new rock type that is completely
are some of the examples of extrusive different from the original.
igneous rock.
➔ Hornfels, Gneiss, and Schist.
➔ Intrusive Rocks - When molten rock
beneath Earth’s surface, that is,
magma, changes to a solid
(solidifies). Granite, diorite, and ROCK CYCLES
gabbro are some of the examples of
intrusive igneous rock.

★ SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

➔ Made of sediments(Dead plants and

animal remains).

➔ Transported by water, wind or gravity

to downstream, downwind, downhill,
or underwater sites.

➢ Weathering - water, ice, ORE MINERALS & FOSSIL FUELS

animals, acids, salts, plants
and change in temperature. ★ ORE - An ore is a rock that contains minerals
with useful elements.
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gravel in the bed of river
containing ore minerals.

HOW ORE MINERALS ARE PROCESSED FOR

HUMAN USE?
★ UNDERGROUND MINING -
★ MINERAL / ORE PROCESSING - the process
of separating the grains of ore minerals from ○ Underground mining is used to
the unwanted minerals. recover ores that are deeper into
Earth’s surface.
★ A concentration of minerals is only called an
ore deposit if it is profitable to mine. ○ Underground mining includes:

■ DRIFT MINING - A method of

HOW ORE MINERALS FOUND AND MINED? accessing valuable geological
materials, by cutting into the
★ MINING - The process of extracting useful side of the earth, rather than
minerals from the surface of the Earth. tunneling straight downwards.

★ There are two ways to mine ores. These are: ■ SLOPE MINING - A method of
accessing valuable geological
★ SURFACE MINING materials where a sloping
access shaft travels
○ Surface mining allows extraction of
downwards towards the
deposits of mineral resources that are
material.
close to Earth’s surface.

○ Surface mining includes: ■ SHAFT MINING - The process

where miners dig straight
■ OPEN-PIT MINING - the down, or almost straight
machines dig very large open down, until they reach their
holes in the ground and desired depth.
remove metal ores (such as
iron, copper, and gold ores),
as well as sand, gravel, and
★ Did you know that Philex Mining Corporation
stone (such as limestone and
is the largest mining company in the
marble).
Philippines.
■ STRIP MINING - is a practice
of mining an ore by first
FUELS
removing all soil and rock that
lies on top. ★ Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal,
fuel oil or natural gas, formed from the
■ MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL - remains of dead plants and animals.
they are used to remove the
top of a mountain to remove ★ WHERE WE CAN FOUND FOSSIL FUELS?
the deposits of minerals. ○ GAS

■ PLACER MINING - process of ○ COAL

extracting minerals from
○ OIL
placers. A deposit of sand or
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★ Coal is a material usually found in ★ Natural gas is a gaseous form of fossil fuel.
sedimentary rock deposits where rock and Many scientists believe natural gas is the
dead plant and animal matter are piled up in remains of marine micro-organisms. Natural
layers. gas is made up of methane.

★ Oil is a liquid fossil fuel. It is also the remnants

of marine micro-organisms that died millions
★ Oil is originally found as a solid material of years ago.
between layers of sedimentary rock, like
shale. TYPES OF WASTE
★ Natural gas is usually found in pockets above
oil deposits. ➔ WASTE - We’ve had a problem with waste
ever since the Industrial Revolution.

QUESTIO Coal, oil, and natural gas are

N 1. examples of fossil fuels, do you TYPES OF WASTE
think these examples can be a great
source of energy which can be used
by human? ● SOLID WASTE - These include urban wastes,
★ Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and industrial wastes, agricultural wastes,
natural gas have been biomedical wastes, and radioactive wastes.
crucial energy sources but
cause pollution and climate
change. As they run out, ● LIQUID WASTE - Wastes generated from
we're shifting to cleaner washing, flushing, or manufacturing processes
energy like solar and wind. of industries are called liquid wastes.

● GASEOUS WASTE - These are the wastes that

are released in the form of gasses from
automobiles, factories, or the burning of fossil
fuels like petroleum.

FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS

SOURCES OF WASTE

★ The generation of waste is a part and parcel of

day-to-day human life. Wastes can be
generated from various sources.

○ Medical Waste

○ Agricultural Sources of Waste

○ Industrial Sources of Waste

○ Waste from Construction

○ Commercial Sources of Waste

○ Mining Sources of Waste

○ Radioactive Sources of Waste

★ In both cases, heat and pressure are critical to ○ Electronic Sources of Waste
the formation of the fossil fuel.

★ Coal is a solid form of ancient, decayed land

vegetation.
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EFFECTS OF WASTE ON PEOPLE’S HEALTH

AND ENVIRONMENT SUMMARY

➔ Modernization and progress have had their

share of disadvantages and one of the main
aspects of concern is the pollution it is
causing to the earth – be it land, air, and
EFFECTS OF WASTE ON THE ENVIRONMENT
water. If at this stage the management and
The waste humans generate waste has been
disposal are improperly done, it can cause
detrimental to our environment for quite some time
serious impacts on health and problems to the
now.
surrounding environment.
1. Climate Change - what we have failed to do is
to put into action the ideas we believe will
help us mitigate or adapt to climate change.
Case in point: the trash that is dumped in
EFFECTS OF WASTE ON PEOPLES’ HEALTH landfills releases methane gas.

1. In particular, Organic domestic waste poses a 2. Wildlife - Simply put, it affects the people who
serious threat, since they ferment, creating depend on the ocean for their livelihoods.
conditions favorable to the survival and They cannot distinguish between what is or
growth of microbial pathogens. isn’t food.

2. Exposure to hazardous waste can affect GEOTHERMAL AND HYDROELECTRIC

human health, with children being more ENERGIES
vulnerable to these pollutants.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
3. Waste from agriculture and industries can also
cause serious health risks. ➔ The adjective geothermal comes from the
Greek word’s geo meaning “earth” and
4. Waste dumped near a water source also thermos which means “heat”. It is a renewable
causes contamination of the water body or the resource that can be harvested for human use.
groundwater source. Geothermal energy is heat stored deep inside
the earth or occasionally in hot springs.
5. Disposal of hospital and other medical waste
requires special attention since this can ➔ In winter, a closed loop of buried pipes
create major health hazards. circulates a fluid, which extracts heat from the
ground and carries it to a heat pump, which
6. Waste treatment and disposal sites can also
transfers the heat to a home’s heat
create health hazards for the neighborhood.
distribution system. However, in summer, this
7. Recycling too carries health risks if proper system works in reverse, removing heat from
precautions are not taken. a home’s interior and storing it in the ground.

➔ According to the EPA (Environmental

Protection Agency), well-designed
geothermal heat pump system is the most
energy-efficient, reliable, environmentally
clean, and cost-effective way to heat or cool a
space, second only to superinsulation.
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➔ TRIVIA: The Philippines currently has seven ★ GROUNDWATER (0.9%) -
geothermal fields which supply about 12 Nearly anywhere you can
percent of the nation’s energy, with a long- stand on the Earth’s surface, there is
term plan to nearly double capacity by 2040. water in the ground
underneath your feet.
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY
★ LAKES (0.008%) - Lakes are just one
➔ Hydroelectric or also known as hydropower type of surface-water – water that is
uses kinetic energy of flowing and falling easily accessible and visible on the
water to produce electricity. The most surface of the Earth.
common approach to harnessing hydropower
is to build a high dam across a large river to ★ WETLANDS (0.001%) - Wetlands
create a reservoir. occur in areas where water covers the
soil for varying periods of time.
➔ TRIVIA: Hydropower is the worlds’ leading
renewable energy source used to produce ★ RIVERS (0.0002%) - Rivers form
electricity. where water flows downhill, due to
gravity, making a journey from
➔ There is a growing concern over emission of the tops of mountains to the sea.
methane, a potent greenhouse gas, from the
decomposition of submerged vegetation in
hydropower plant reservoirs, especially in GEOTHERMAL AND HYDROELECTRIC
warm climates. The use of micro hydropower ENERGIES
generators may become an increasingly
important way to produce electricity ● HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT WATER
AND SOIL RESOURCES
➔ They use the power of flowing water to turn
rotor blades, which spin a turbine to produce ○ Soil and water are two important
electric current. natural resources and the basic needs
for agricultural production.

WATER RESOURCES ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY OF

WATER
WATER
● Removal of Natural Ecosystem - the
➔ We live on a water planet, with a precious removal, destruction, or impairment of natural
layer of water – most of it saltwater – covering ecosystems are among the greatest causes of
about 71% of the earth’s surface. critical impacts on the sustainability of our
natural water resources.

● Sediments in Water - Aquatic ecosystems are

★ SALTWATER (97%) - The majority of
threatened by sediment in water. Sediments
water on Earth is salty!
occur in water bodies both naturally and as a
Chloride and sodium are the most
result of various human actions.
abundant ions found in saltwater.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF POLLUTION

★ ICE (2.06%) - Most of the freshwater

● Different kinds of pollution may also affect
on the Earth is frozen! Ice is made of
water resources. First is the impact of Acid
freshwater, even ice floating in
Rain on water resources.
oceans and seas.
● Second is the impact of human activity on
surface water quality. Surface water pollution
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risks, particularly in developing nations,
remain relatively widespread.

● Point Source (PS) pollution is commonly

linked directly to end-of-pipe releases from
industry and municipal wastes.

● Non-Point Source (NPS) pollution occurs

when contaminants from diverse and widely
spread sources are transported by runoff into
rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater and
coastal areas.

● Groundwater Quality - Incidents of

groundwater pollution arising from human
actions, particularly in developing nations,
remain relatively widespread and its impacts
in terms of degraded water quality.

● Excessive Water Withdrawal - The

Consequences of Excessive Water Withdrawal
can also affect the water resources.

● Climate Change - may also affect the

availability and quality of water resources.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF POLLUTION

● Soil is a necessary source - Soil helps sustain

life on Earth—including your life.

● There are three (3) human activities that

affect the quality and quantity of soil. These
are farming, construction of structures, and
waste disposal.

● Farming is very important to society because

almost all the world's food is grown on farms.
Another problem is overgrazing. Overgrazing
occurs when farm animals eat large amounts
of the land cover.

○ Constructions - to make roads,

houses, shopping malls, and other
buildings, people need to dig up the
soil.

○ Mining - Some methods of mining

cause soil loss.

○ Waste Disposal - The soil became a

major recipient of this waste and
there was little concern about
depositing it in or on the soil.