CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

INTRODUCTION • Conclusion: each external force acting on a rigid body can, if unopposed, impart to the rigid
• Treatment of a body as a single particle is not always possible (size of the body and the body a motion of translation or rotation, or both.
specific points of application of the forces must be considered)
• rigid body defined as one that does not deform (3.1B) Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
• Most bodies in elementary mechanics are assumed to be rigid (actual deformations are - states that the conditions of equilibrium or motion of a rigid body remain unchanged if a
small and do not affect the conditions of equilibrium or motion of the body) force F acting at a given point of the rigid body is replaced by a force F’ of the same
• Current chapter describes the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body and how to replace a magnitude and same direction, but acting at a different point, provided that the two forces
given system of forces with a simpler equivalent system have the same line of action
• moment of a force about a point - This principle, which states that the action of a force may be transmitted along its line of
• moment of a force about an axis action, is based on experimental evidence
• moment due to a couple
• Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an equivalent system
consisting of one force acting at a given point and one couple

3.1 FORCES AND MOMENTS

- Conditions of equilibrium or motion are not
- basic definition of a force does not change if the force acts on a point or on a rigid body. affected by transmitting a force along its line of
- effects of the force can be very different depending on factors such as the point of action.
application or line of action of that force. - Equivalent forces: The two forces F and F’ have
- calculations involving forces acting on a rigid body are more complicated than situations the same effect on the rigid body
involving forces acting on a point. - point of application of the force does not
matter as long as the line of action remains
unchanged in forces acting on a rigid body
(3.1A) External and Internal Forces
• Forces acting on rigid bodies can be separated into two groups:
1. Internal forces: hold together the particles forming the rigid body
- If the rigid body is structurally composed of several parts, the forces holding the component
parts together are also defined as internal forces.
2. External forces: exerted by other bodies on the rigid body under consideration - sliding vector: forces acting on a rigid body must be represented by a different kind of vector
- entirely responsible for the external behavior of the rigid body (sliding) since forces are allowed to slide along their lines of action
- either causing it to move or ensuring that it remains at rest
- example of external forces:
- line of action of the force F:
- external forces are shown in a free-body diagram
horizontal line passing
- weight: represented by the single force W.
through both the front and
➢ point of application of this force (point at which the
rear bumpers of the truck
force acts): center of gravity of the truck
- front bumper: point of application of F
- replace F by an equivalent
- each external force can impart a motion of translation or rotation,
force F’ acting on the rear
or both if unopposed;
bumper using the principle
➢ Translation: forward motion of the truck during which
each straight line keeps its original orientation (floor of
the truck remains horizontal, and walls remain vertical) - moving the point of application of the force F to the rear bumper does not affect the motion or the other
➢ Rotation: motion wherein force exerted by a jack forces acting on the truck
placed under the front axle would cause the truck to -the conditions of motion are unaffected and all of the other external forces acting on the truck (W, R1, R2)
pivot about its rear axle remain unchanged if the people push on the rear bumper instead of pulling on the front bumper
 CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- Principle of transmissibility may not always apply in determining internal forces and
deformations ❖ Note: if P and Q do not have a common point of application, redraw them first from the
➢ The principle of transmissibility and the concept of equivalent forces same point. The three vectors P, Q, and V—taken in that order—are said to form a
have limitations righthanded triad.
❖ Vector product (of P and Q): vector V satisfying these three conditions
➢ represented by the mathematical expression:
Vector Product:

- vector product of two vectors P and Q: also referred to as the cross product of P and Q
- vector product is zero: if the vectors P and Q have either the same direction or opposite
directions
- when the angle θ formed by the two vectors is neither 0° nor 180°: The magnitude V of the
vector product of P and Q is equal to the area of the parallelogram that has P and Q for sides
(Fig. 3.6).
❖ According to the principle of transmissibility, we can replace force P2 by a force P2‘ having the same
magnitude, same direction, and same line of action but acting at A instead of B (Fig. b)
✓ forces P1 and P2‘ acting on the same particle can be added and since these forces are
equal and opposite, their sum is equal to zero
✓ in terms of the external behavior of the bar, the original system of forces shown in (Fig. a) is - vector product of P×Q is therefore unchanged if
equivalent to no force at all (Fig. c). we replace Q by a vector Q’ that is coplanar (in
❖ we can replace force P2 by a force P2‘ having the same magnitude, same direction, and same line of the same plane) with P and Q such that the line
action but acting at B instead of A (Fig. e) joining the tips of Q and Q’ is parallel to P:
✓ We can add forces P1 and P2‘, and their sum is again zero (Fig. f)
❖ From the point of view of the mechanics of rigid bodies, the systems shown in (Fig. a and d) are thus
equivalent. However,
✓ internal forces and deformations produced by the two systems are clearly different
✓ tension: bar of (Fig. a) if not absolutely rigid, increases in length slightly
✓ compression: bar of (Fig. d) if not absolutely rigid, decreases in length slightly

(properties)vector product:
(3.1C) Vector Products
- are distributive:
- vector product of two vectors P and Q is defined as the vector V that satisfies the following
conditions:
- are not associative:
1. line of action of V: perpendicular to the plane containing P
and Q (Fig. 3.5a)
- are not commutative:
2. magnitude of V: product of the magnitudes of P and Q
and of the sine of the angle θ formed by P and Q (the
➢ from the third condition used to define the vector product V of P and Q–
measure of which is always 180° or less):
– namely, that P, Q, and V must form a right-handed triad –– it follows
Magnitude of a vector product:
that vector products are not commutative:

3. The direction of V is obtained from the right-hand rule Q×P ≠ P×Q

➢ Close right hand and hold it so that fingers are curled in
the same sense as the rotation through θ that brings the ➢ we can easily check that Q×P is represented by the vector −𝑽, which is equal and
vector P in line with the vector Q. Thumb then indicates opposite to V: Eq. (3.4)
the direction of the vector V (Fig. 3.5b)
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

(3.1D) Rectangular Components of Vector Products - making use of the distributive property, express V as the sum of vector products:
- rectangular components: more convenient way to express vector products ➢ 𝑷 𝒙 𝒊 × 𝑸𝒚 𝒋
- cartesian unit vectors: i, j, and k - each of the expressions obtained is equal to the vector product of two unit vectors:
➢ i × j multiplied by the product of two scalars 𝑷𝒙 𝑸𝒚
- Recalling the identities of Eq. (3.7) and factoring out i, j, and k:
(a) Since both vectors have a magnitude equal
to 1 and since they are at a right angle to each
other, their vector product is also a unit vector.
- Thus, the rectangular components of the vector product V are:
➢ This unit vector must be k, since the Rectangular components of a vector product:
vectors i, j, and k are mutually
perpendicular and form a right-
handed triad.

(b) it follows from the right-hand rule given that

the product j×i is equal to −𝒌
- In Eq. (3.8), notice that the right-hand side represents the expansion of a determinant. Thus,
❖ vector product of a unit vector with itself, we can express the vector product V in the following form:
such as i×i, is equal to zero, since both Rectangular components of a vector product (determinant form):
vectors have the same direction

- vector products of all the various possible pairs of unit vectors:

❖ Any determinant consisting of three rows and three columns can be evaluated by
repeating the first and second columns and forming products along each diagonal line.
❖ The sum of the products obtained along the red lines is then subtracted from the sum of
the products obtained along the black lines

- determine the sign of the vector product of two unit vectors simply by arranging them in a
circle and reading them in the order of the multiplication. Product is:

(3.1E) Moment of a Force about a Point

➢ positive: follow each other in - force F: represented by a vector

counterclockwise order that defines its magnitude and
➢ negative: follow each other in direction.
clockwise order ➢ effect of the force on the
rigid body depends on its
point of application A

- easily express the vector product V of two given vectors P and Q in terms of the rectangular - position vector (vector r): position of
components of these vectors. Resolving P and Q into components: A can be conveniently defined by
the vector r that joins the fixed
reference point O with A
 CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

Moment of a force about a point O: - line of action of F: must lie in a plane through O perpendicular to the moment 𝑴𝑶
- distance d from O: must be equal to the quotient 𝑴𝑶 /F of the magnitudes of 𝑴𝑶 and F
- sense of 𝑴𝑶 : determines whether the line of action of F occurs on one side or the other of the
point O.
- According to the definition of the vector product: Two forces F and F’ are equivalent if, and only if, they are equal (have the same magnitude
✓ magnitude of 𝑴𝑶 : measures the tendency of the force F to make the rigid body rotate and same direction) and have equal moments about a given point O. The necessary and
about a fixed axis directed along 𝑴𝑶 sufficient conditions for two forces F and F’ to be equivalent are:
✓ moment 𝑴𝑶 must be perpendicular to the plane containing O and force F
✓ sense of 𝑴𝑶 : defined by sense of the rotation that will bring vector r in line with vector F
➢ rotation: observed as counterclockwise by an observer located at the tip of 𝑴𝑶
➢ determined by the right-hand rule TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS
✓ Another way of defining the sense of 𝑴𝑶: variation of the right-hand rule: - two-dimensional structures: have length and breadth but only negligible depth
➢ Close right hand and hold it so that fingers curl in the sense of the rotation that F - often subjected to forces contained in the plane of the structure
would impart to the rigid body about a fixed axis directed along the line of action of
𝑴𝑶 ❖ a rigid slab acted upon by a force F in the
➢ thumb indicates the sense of the moment 𝑴𝑶 plane of the slab
✓ denoting by θ the angle between the lines of action of the position vector r and the - moment of F about a point O: represented by a
force F, the magnitude of the moment of F about O: vector 𝑴𝑶 perpendicular to that plane and of
Magnitude of the moment of a force: magnitude Fd
- sense of the moment of F about O:
➢ (a) counterclockwise
➢ (b) clockwise
- Since the moment of a force F acting in the plane
➢ d: perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of F of the figure must be perpendicular to that plane,
✓ tendency of a force F to make a rigid body rotate about a fixed axis perpendicular to we need only specify the magnitude and the
the force depends upon the distance of F from that axis and magnitude of F sense of the moment of F about O.
✓ moment arm: perpendicular distance between the rotation point and the line of action ➢ do this by assigning to the magnitude 𝑴𝑶
of the force is just as important. of the moment a positive or negative sign
according to whether the vector 𝑴𝑶 is
➢ moment of a force depends on the magnitude of the force and length of the
counterclockwise or clockwise
moment arm

❖ In the SI system of units, where a force is expressed in newtons (N) and a distance in meters - If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the sense of the moment vector is out of
(m), the moment of a force is expressed in newton-meters (N•m) the plane of the structure and the magnitude of the moment is positive.
❖ In the U.S. customary system of units, where a force is expressed in pounds and a distance in - If the force tends to rotate the structure counterclockwise, the sense of the moment
feet or inches, the moment of a force is expressed in lb•ft or lb•in vector is into the plane of the structure and the magnitude of the moment is negative.

- moment 𝑴𝑶 of a force about a point: (3.1F) Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force
➢ depends upon the magnitude, line of action, and sense of the force - use the distributive property of vector products to determine the moment of the resultant of
➢ doesn’t depend on the actual position of the point of application of the force along several concurrent forces.
its line of action - If several forces F1, F2, . . . are applied at the same point A and if we denote by r the position
- moment 𝑴𝑶 of a force F does not characterize the position of the point of application of F vector of A, it follows immediately from Eq. (3.5) that:
- moment 𝑴𝑶 of a force F of a given magnitude and direction completely defines the line of
action of F
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- Since the components of the position vector r are respectively equal to the coordinates x, y,
and z of the point A, we can write r and F as:

The moment about a given point O of

- Substituting for r and F from Eqs. (3.15) and (3.16) into:
the resultant of several concurrent
forces is equal to the sum of the
moments of the various forces about the - and recalling Eqs. (3.8) and (3.9), we can write the moment 𝑴𝑶 of F about O in the form:
same point O

➢ where the components Mx, My, and Mz are defined by the relations

Rectangular components of a moment:

VARIGNON’S THEOREM
- by French mathematician Pierre Varignon (1654–1722)
- established long before the introduction of vector algebra
- relation in Eq. (3.14) makes it possible to replace the direct determination of the moment of a
force F by determining the moments of two or more component forces - (see in Sec. 3.2C) scalar components Mx, My, and Mz of the moment 𝑴𝑶 measure the
- F is generally resolved into components parallel to the coordinate axes tendency of the force F to impart to a rigid body a rotation about the x, y, and z axes
- it may be more expeditious in some instances to resolve F into components that are not - Substituting from Eq. (3.18) into Eq. (3.17), we can also write 𝑴𝑶 in the form of the
parallel to the coordinate axes (see Sample Prob. 3.3) determinant:
- determining the moment of a force in space is considerably simplified if the force and the
position vector of its point of application are resolved into rectangular x, y, and z components

- moment 𝑴𝑶 about O of a force F - To compute the moment 𝑴𝑩 about an arbitrary

whose components are Fx, Fy, and point B of a force F applied at A:
Fz and that is applied at a point A ✓ replace the position vector r in Eq. (3.11) by
with coordinates x, y, and z
a vector drawn from B to A.
✓ This vector is the position vector of A relative
to B, denoted by 𝒓𝑨/𝑩
- Observing that 𝒓𝑨/𝑩 can be obtained by
subtracting 𝒓𝑩 from 𝒓𝑨 :
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- or using the determinant form:

➢ where 𝒙𝑨/𝑩 , 𝒚𝑨/𝑩 , and 𝒛𝑨/𝑩 denote the components of the vector 𝒓𝑨/𝑩

- In the case of two-dimensional problems:

✓ assume without loss of generality that the
force F lies in the xy plane 3.2 MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT AN AXIS
✓ Setting z = 0 and Fz = 0 in Eq. (3.19), we
obtain: (3.2A) Scalar Products

✓ We can verify that the moment of F about O

is perpendicular to the plane of the figure ❖ scalar product of two vectors P and Q:
and that it is completely defined by the product of the magnitudes of P and Q
scalar: and of the cosine of the angle θ
formed between them
❖ The scalar product of P and Q is
denoted by P • Q

- positive value for 𝑴𝑶 : indicates that the vector 𝑴𝑶 points out of the paper (the force F tends
to rotate the body counter clockwise about O) Scalar Product: (scalar result)
- negative value: indicates that the vector 𝑴𝑶 points into the paper (the force F tends to rotate
the body clockwise about O).
- scalar product: expression is not a vector but a scalar
- P • Q: referred to as the dot product of the vectors P and Q.
- To compute the moment about B(xB, yB) of - scalar product of two vectors is commutative:
a force lying in the xy plane and applied at
A(xA, yA):
- scalar product is distributive:
✓ set 𝒛𝑨/𝑩 = 0 and FZ = 0 in Eq. (3.21)
✓ note: vector MB is perpendicular to
the xy plane and is defined in - associative property cannot apply to scalar products:
magnitude and sense by the scalar: (P • Q) • S = undefined (no meaning)
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- express the scalar product of two vectors P and Q in terms of their rectangular components.
Resolving P and Q into components: ❖ vector Q directed along OL and of the same sense as OL
➢ express the scalar product of P and Q as:

- using distributive property, express P • Q as the sum of scalar products (Pxi • Qxi and Pxi • Qxj)
➢ scalar products of the unit vectors are either zero or one: ➢ from which it follows that:

- Thus, the expression for P • Q reduces to:

Scalar Product:
❖ when the vector selected along OL is defined by the
unit vector λ:

- In the particular case when P and Q are equal:

➢ components of λ along the coordinate axes are

respectively equal to the direction cosines of OL.
Resolving P and λ into rectangular components,
APPLICATIONS OF THE SCALAR PRODUCT express the projection of P on OL as:

1. Angle formed by two given vectors

- Let two vectors be given in terms of their components:
▪ θx, θy, and θz: denote the angles that the axis OL
forms with the coordinate axes

(3.2B) Mixed Triple Products

- To determine the angle formed by the two vectors, equate the expressions obtained in Eqs. - mixed triple product of the three vectors S, P, and Q as the scalar expression:
(3.24) and (3.28) for their scalar product, Mixed Triple Product:

- Solving for cos θ:

- obtained by forming the scalar product of S with the vector product of P and Q

❖ mixed triple product of S, P, and Q has a simple

geometrical interpretation
2. Projection of a vector on a given axis ➢ P × Q is perpendicular to the plane containing
P and Q and that its magnitude is equal to the
❖ vector P forming an angle θ with an axis, or directed line, OL area of the parallelogram that has P and Q for
➢ We define the projection of P on the axis OL as the scalar:
sides
➢ Eq. (3.32) indicates that we can obtain the
scalar product of S and P × Q by multiplying the
➢ projection POL is equal in absolute value to the length of the magnitude of P × Q (area of the parallelogram
segment OA.
defined by P and Q) by the projection of S on
➢ positive if OA has the same sense as the axis OL––that is, if θ
is acute––and negative otherwise. the vector P × Q (projection of S on the normal
➢ projection of P on OL is zero: if P and OL are at a right angle to the plane containing the parallelogram)
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- Substituting from the relations in Eq. (3.9) for the components of V:

❖ mixed triple product is equal (in absolute value) to

the volume of the parallelepiped having the - write this expression in a more compact form if we observe that it represents the expansion of
vectors S, P, and Q for sides a determinant:
➢ sign of the mixed triple product is Mixed triple product, determinant form:
positive if S, P, and Q form a right-
handed triad
➢ negative if they form a left-handed
triad. [That is, S • (P × Q) is negative if
the rotation that brings P into line with Q
is observed as clockwise from the tip of - applying the rules governing the permutation of rows in a determinant could easily verify the
S] relations in Eq. (3.37), which was derived earlier from geometrical considerations
➢ mixed triple product is zero if S, P, and Q
are coplanar (3.2C) Moment of a Force about a Given Axis

- Since the parallelepiped defined in this way is independent of the order in which the three ❖ force F acting on a rigid body
vectors are taken, the six mixed triple products that can be formed with S, P, and Q all have and the moment 𝑴𝑶 of that force
the same absolute value, although not the same sign: about O
➢ Let OL be an axis through
O:
define the moment 𝑴𝑶𝑳 of
F about OL as the
❖ Arranging the letters representing the three projection OC of the
vectors counterclockwise in a circle
moment 𝑴𝑶 onto the axis
➢ sign of the mixed triple product
OL
remains unchanged if the vectors are
permuted in such a way that they still
read in counterclockwise order (such
a permutation is said to be a circular
permutation)
➢ commutative property of scalar
products that the mixed triple product
- denote the unit vector along OL by λ and recall the expressions (3.34) and (3.11) for the
of S, P, and Q can be defined equally
well as: S• (P × Q) or (S × P) • Q
projection of a vector on a given axis and for the moment 𝑴𝑶 of a force F. Then we can
express 𝑴𝑶𝑳 as:
- express the mixed triple product of the vectors S, P, and Q in terms of the rectangular Moment about an axis through the origin:
components of these vectors. Denoting P × Q by V and using formula (3.28) to express the
scalar product of S and V:

➢ This shows that the moment 𝑴𝑶𝑳 of F about the axis OL is the scalar obtained by
forming the mixed triple product of λ, r, and F.
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- We can also express 𝑴𝑶𝑳 in the form of a determinant, ➢ substituting each of the unit vectors i, j, and k for λ in Eq. (3.40) obtain expressions for
the moments of F about the coordinate axes. These expressions are respectively equal
to those obtained earlier for the components of the moment 𝑴𝑶 of F about O:

- components Fx, Fy, and Fz of a force F acting on a rigid body: measure the tendency of F to
move the rigid body in the x, y, and z directions
- moments Mx, My, and Mz of F about the coordinate axes: measure the tendency of F to
impart to the rigid body a rotation about the x, y, and z axes
❖ physical significance of the moment 𝑴𝑶𝑳 of a force F
about a fixed axis OL becomes more apparent if we ❖ we can obtain the moment of a
resolve F into two rectangular components F1 and F2, force F applied at A about an axis
with F1 parallel to OL and F2 lying in a plane P that does not pass through the origin
perpendicular to OL by choosing an arbitrary point B on
the axis and determining the
➢ Resolving r similarly into two
projection on the axis BL of the
components r1 and r2 and substituting
moment MB of F about B. The
for F and r into Eq. (3.40): equation for this projection:
Moment about an arbitrary axis:

➢ 𝒓𝑨/𝑩 = 𝒓𝑨 - 𝒓𝑩 : represents the

- Note: all of the mixed triple products except the last one are equal to zero because they vector drawn from B to A.
involve vectors that are coplanar when drawn from a common origin.
- expression reduces to: - Expressing 𝑴𝑩𝑳 in the form of a determinant:

- vector product r2 × F2: perpendicular to the plane P and represents the moment of the
component F2 of F about the point Q where OL intersects P.
- scalar 𝑴𝑶𝑳 (positive if r2 × F2 and OL have the same sense and is negative otherwise):
measures the tendency of F2 to make the rigid body rotate about the fixed axis OL
- F1 and OL are parallel: component F1 of F does not tend to make the body rotate about OL:

➢ The moment 𝑴𝑶𝑳 of F about OL measures the tendency of the force F to impart to the
rigid body a rotation about the fixed axis OL

- from the definition of the moment of a force about an axis: - Note: this result is independent of the choice of the point B on the given axis.
➢ moment of F about a coordinate axis: equal to the component of 𝑴𝑶 along that axis
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- denoting by 𝑴𝑪𝑳 the moment obtained with a different point C:

❖ Note: vector r in Eq. (3.45) is independent of the choice of the origin O of the
coordinate axes
➢ we would obtain the same result if the moments of F and −F had been
computed about a different point O’
➢ since the vectors λ and 𝒓𝑩 - 𝒓𝑪 lie along the same line, volume of the parallelepiped ➢ moment M of a couple: a free vector which can be applied at any point
having the vectors λ, 𝒓𝑩 - 𝒓𝑪 , and F for sides mixed triple product of these three vectors (Fig. 3.27)
is zero
➢ expression obtained for 𝑴𝑪𝑳 reduces to its first term, which is the expression used earlier - two couples –– one consisting of the forces F1 and −F1, the other of the forces F2 and −F2 ––
to define 𝑴𝑩𝑳 have equal moments if: (fig. 3.28)
➢ when computing the moment of F about the given axis, A can be any point on the
line of action of F
➢ provided that the two couples lie in parallel planes (or in the same plane) and have
3.3 COUPLES AND FORCE COUPLE SYSTEMS the same sense (clockwise or counterclockwise).

(3.3A) Moment of a Couple

- couple: two forces F and −F, having the same magnitude, parallel lines of action, and
opposite sense (fig. 3.25)
➢ sum of components of the two forces in any direction is zero
➢ sum of the moments of the two forces about a given point is not zero
➢ two forces do not cause the body on which they act to move along a line
(translation), but they do tend to make it rotate.
- denote the position vectors of the points of application of F and −F by = 𝒓𝑨 and 𝒓𝑩 (Fig. 3.26)
➢ sum of the moments of the two forces about O:

- Setting 𝒓𝑨 − 𝒓𝑩 = 𝒓, sum of the moments of F and −F about O is represented by the vector:

➢ r: vector joining the points of application of the two forces

- vector M: moment of the couple

➢ perpendicular to the plane containing the two forces, and its magnitude is:

➢ d: perpendicular distance between the lines of action of F and −F

➢ θ: angle between F (or −F) and r
➢ sense of M: defined by the right-hand rule
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

(3.3B) Equivalent Couples

❖ two couples having the same moment M are equivalent

➢ consider two couples contained in the same plane, and assume that this plane
coincides with the plane of the figure (Fig. 3.30
❖ three couples act successively on the same rectangular box (Fig. 3.29) ➢ first couple: consists of the forces F1 and −F1 of magnitude F1, located at a distance d1
❖ rotation: only motion a couple can impart to a rigid body from each other (Fig. 3.30a)
❖ each of the three couples shown has the same moment M (same direction and same ➢ second couple: consists of the forces F2 and −F2 of magnitude F2, located at a
magnitude M =120 lb • in.) distance d2 from each other (Fig. 3.30d)
❖ expect each couple to have the same effect on the box - Since the two couples have the same moment M, which is perpendicular to the plane of
the figure, they must have the same sense (assumed here to be counterclockwise), and
- Before stating that two systems (or groups) of forces have the same effect on a rigid body, we must satisfy the relation:
should prove that fact on the basis of the experimental evidence introduced so far
➢ evidence consists of the parallelogram law for the addition of two forces and the
principle of transmissibility - To prove that they are equivalent, we shall show that the first couple can be transformed into
➢ state that two systems of forces are equivalent (have the same effect on a rigid body) the second by means of the operations listed previously.
if we can transform one of them into the other by means of one or several of the ➢ denote by A, B, C, and D the points of intersection of the lines of action of the two
following operations: couples.
➢ First, slide the forces F1 and −F1 until they are attached at A and B (Fig. 3.30b)
(1) replacing two forces acting on the same particle by their resultant ➢ then resolve force F1 into a component P along line AB and a component Q along AC
(2) resolving a force into two components (Fig. 3.30c)
(3) canceling two equal and opposite forces acting on the same particle ➢ resolve force −F1 into −P along AB and −Q along BD
(4) attaching to the same particle two equal and opposite forces ➢ forces P and −P have the same magnitude, the same line of action, and opposite
(5) moving a force along its line of action sense; we can move them along their common line of action until they are applied at
the same point and may then be canceled
➢ Each of these operations is easily justified on the basis of the parallelogram law or the ➢ couple formed by F1 and −F1 reduces to a couple consisting of Q and −Q
principle of transmissibility ➢ now show that the forces Q and −Q are respectively equal to the forces −F2 and F2
➢ obtain the moment of the couple formed by Q and −Q by computing the moment of
Q about B
➢ the moment of the couple formed by F1 and −F1 is the moment of F1 about B
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

➢ However, by Varignon’s theorem, the moment of F1 is equal to the sum of the ➢ the couple formed by −F1 and F3 can be replaced by a couple consisting
moments of its components P and Q of −F3 and F2
▪ Since the moment of P about B is zero, the moment of the couple formed by Q ➢ Canceling the two equal and opposite forces F3 and −F3, we obtain the
and −Q must be equal to the moment of the couple formed by F1 and −F1. desired couple in plane P2 (Fig. 3.31d)
Recalling Eq. (3.47): ➢ we conclude that two couples having the same moment M are
equivalent, whether they are contained in the same plane or in parallel
planes
➢ the forces Q and −Q are respectively equal to the forces −F2 and F2 and o The property we have just established is very important for the correct understanding
the couple of Fig. 3.30a is equivalent to the couple of Fig. 3.30d of the mechanics of rigid bodies
o It indicates that when a couple acts on a rigid body, it does not matter where the two
forces forming the couple act or what magnitude and direction they have
o The only thing that counts is the moment of the couple (magnitude and direction
o Couples with the same moment have the same effect on the rigid body.

(3.3C) Addition of Couples

❖ two couples contained in parallel planes P1 and P2

o prove that they are equivalent if they have the same moment ❖ Consider two intersecting planes P1 & P2 and two couples acting in P1 & P2
➢ we can assume that the couples consist of forces of the same magnitude F o each couple is a free vector in its respective plane and can be represented
acting along parallel lines (Fig. 3.31a and d) within this plane by any combination of equal, opposite, and parallel forces and
➢ propose to show that the couple contained in plane P1 can be of perpendicular distance of separation that provides the same sense and
transformed into the couple contained in plane P2 by means of the magnitude for this couple
standard operations listed previously ➢ assume that the couple in P1 consists of two forces F1 and −F1 perpendicular to
o consider the two diagonal planes defined by the lines of action of F1 and −F2 and by the line of intersection of the two planes and acting respectively at A and B
those of −F1 and F2 (Fig. 3.31b) (Fig. 3.32a)
➢ At a point on their line of intersection, attach two forces F3 and −F3, which ➢ assume that the couple in P2 consists of two forces F2 and −F2 perpendicular to
are respectively equal to F1 and −F1 AB and acting at A and B
➢ The couple formed by F1 and −F3 can be replaced by a couple consisting ➢ It is clear that the resultant R of F1 and F2 and the resultant −R of −F1 and −F2
of F3 and −F2 (Fig. 3.31c) because both couples clearly have the same form a couple
moment and are contained in the same diagonal plane
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI
➢ Denoting the vector joining B to A by r and recalling the definition of the
moment of a couple (Sec. 3.3A), express the moment M of the resulting - Couple vector: vector representing a couple
couple as: ➢ a free vector
➢ Therefore, we can choose its point of application at the origin of the system of
coordinates, if so desired (Fig. 3.33c)
- By Varignon’s theorem, we can expand this expression as: ➢ Furthermore, we can resolve the couple vector M into component vectors Mx,
My, and Mz that are directed along the coordinate axes (Fig. 3.33d). These
component vectors represent couples acting, respectively, in the yz, zx, and
- The first term in this expression represents the moment M1 of the couple in P1 and the second xy planes.
term represents the moment M2 of the couple in P2. Therefore: - Note: in Fig. 3.33, we use a red arrow to distinguish the couple vector, which represents the
couple itself, from the moment of the couple, which was represented by a green arrow in
earlier figures
- We conclude that the sum of two couples of moments M1 and M2 is a couple of moment M - Also note that we added the symbol ↑ to this red arrow to avoid any confusion with vectors
equal to the vector sum of M1 and M2 (Fig. 3.32b). We can extend this conclusion to state that representing forces
any number of couples can be added to produce one resultant couple:
(3.3E) Resolution of a Given Force into a Force at O and a Couple

❖ force F acting on a rigid body at a point A defined by the position vector r (Fig. 3.34a)
(3.3D) Couple Vectors o we can move F along its line of action but we cannot move it to a point O that
does not lie on the original line of action without modifying the action of F on the
rigid body.

o We can attach two forces at point O: one equal to F and the other equal to −𝐹,
- couples with the same moment, whether they act in the same plane or in parallel planes, are without modifying the action of the original force on the rigid body (Fig. 3.34b)
equivalent o this transformation now have a force F applied at O; the other two forces form a
- we have no need to draw the actual forces forming a given couple in order to define its couple of moment 𝑴𝑶 = r × F
effect on a rigid body (Fig. 3.33a) o Any force F acting on a rigid body can be moved to an arbitrary point O
- it is sufficient to draw an arrow equal in magnitude and direction to the moment M of the provided that we add a couple whose moment is equal to the moment of F
couple (Fig. 3.33b) about O
- sum of two couples is itself a couple and that we can obtain the moment M of the resultant o couple tends to impart to the rigid body the same rotational motion about O that
couple by forming the vector sum of the moments M1 and M2 of the given couples force F tended to produce before it was transferred to O
- couples obey the law of addition of vectors, so the arrow used in Fig. 3.33b to represent the o represent the couple by a couple vector 𝑴𝑶 that is perpendicular to the plane
couple defined in Fig. 3.33a truly can be considered a vector containing r and F
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

o Since 𝑴𝑶 is a free vector, it may be applied anywhere 3.4 SIMPLIFYING SYSTEMS OF FORCES
➢ force-couple system: couple vector attached at O together with F. (Fig. 3.34c).
(3.4A) Reducing a System of Forces to a Force-Couple System

❖ system of forces F1, F2, F3, . . . , acting on a rigid body at the points A1, A2, A3, . . . , defined
by the position vectors r1, r2, r3, etc. (Fig. 3.36a)
o we can move F1 from A1 to a given point O if we add a couple of moment M1
equal to the moment r1 × F1 of F1 about O
o Repeating this procedure with F2, F3, . . . , we obtain the system shown in
Fig. 3.36b, which consists of the original forces, now acting at O, and the added
couple vectors
o Since the forces are now concurrent, they can be added vectorially and
replaced by their resultant R
o the couple vectors M1, M2, M3, . . . , can be added vectorially and replaced by a
single couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅
o reduce any system of forces to an equivalent force-couple system acting at a
given point O
o Note: although each of the couple vectors M1, M2, M3, . . . in Fig. 3.36b is
If we move force F from A to a different point O’ (Fig. 3.35a and c), we have to compute the perpendicular to its corresponding force, the resultant force R and the resultant
moment 𝑴𝑶 ′ = r’ × F of F about O’ and add a new force-couple system consisting of F and the couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 shown in Fig. 3.36c are not, in general, perpendicular to each
couple vector 𝑴𝑶 ′ at O’. We can obtain the relation between the moments of F about O and other.
O’ as:

➢ s: vector joining O’ to O
➢ we obtain the moment 𝑴𝑶 ′ of F about O’ by adding to the moment 𝑴𝑶 of F about
O the vector product s × F, representing the moment about O’ of the force F
applied at O
➢ establish this result by observing that, in order to transfer to O’ the force-couple
system attached at O (Fig. 3.35b and c), we could freely move the couple vector
𝑴𝑶 to O’
➢ to move force F from O to O’, we need to add to F a couple vector whose - The equivalent force-couple system is defined by
moment is equal to the moment about O’ of force F applied at O Force-couple system:
➢ the couple vector 𝑴𝑶 ′ must be the sum of 𝑴𝑶 and the vector s × F.
➢ the force-couple system obtained by transferring a force F from a point A to a
point O consists of F and a couple vector 𝑴𝑶 perpendicular to F
➢ any force-couple system consisting of a force F and a couple vector 𝑴𝑶 that are ➢ These equations state that we obtain force R by adding all of the forces of the
mutually perpendicular can be replaced by a single equivalent force system, whereas we obtain the moment of the resultant couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 , called
➢ This is done by moving force F in the plane perpendicular to 𝑴𝑶 until its moment the moment resultant of the system, by adding the moments about O of all the
about O is equal to the moment of the couple being replaced. forces of the system.
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

- resultant couple of the system: given system of forces that can be reduced to a single couple
- Once we have reduced a given system of
What are the conditions under which a given system of forces can be reduced to a single
forces to a force and a couple at a point O,
force?
we can replace it with a force and a couple at
another point O’.
- we can replace the force-couple system at O by a single force R acting along a new line of
- The resultant force R will remain unchanged,
action if R and 𝑀𝑂𝑅 are mutually perpendicular
whereas the new moment resultant 𝑀𝑂𝑅 ’ will be
- systems of forces that can be reduced to a single force, or resultant, are therefore the systems
equal to the sum of 𝑀𝑂𝑅 and the moment about
for which force R and the couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 are mutually perpendicular
O’ of force R attached at O (Fig. 3.37). We
- this condition is generally not satisfied by systems of forces in space, but it is satisfied by
have:
systems consisting of (1) concurrent forces, (2) coplanar forces, or (3) parallel forces

1. Concurrent forces
✓ act at the same point
✓ we can add them directly to obtain their resultant R
✓ always reduce to a single force

2. Coplanar forces
- the reduction of a given system of forces to a single force R at O and a couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 is
carried out in terms of components: Resolving each position vector r and each force F of the
system into rectangular components, we have

- components RX, RY, and RZ: represent the sums of the x, y, and z components of the given
forces and measure the tendency of the system to impart to the rigid body a translation in the
x, y, or z direction.
- the components 𝑀𝑋𝑅 , 𝑀𝑦𝑅 , and 𝑀𝑧𝑅 : represent the sum of the moments of the given forces ✓ act in the same plane, which we assume to be the plane of the figure
about the x, y, and z axes and measure the tendency of the system to impart to the rigid body (Fig. 3.38a)
a rotation about the x, y, or z axis ✓ sum R of the forces of the system also lies in the plane of the figure, whereas
the moment of each force about O and thus the moment resultant 𝑀𝑂𝑅 are
(3.4C) Further Reduction of a System of Forces perpendicular to that plane
✓ force-couple system at O consists, therefore, of a force R and a couple vector
- any given system of forces acting on a rigid body can be reduced to an equivalent force- 𝑀𝑂𝑅 that are mutually perpendicular (Fig. 3.38b).
couple system at O, consisting of a force R equal to the sum of the forces of the system, and a ✓ We can reduce them to a single force R by moving R in the plane of the figure
couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 of moment equal to the moment resultant of the system. until its moment about O becomes equal to 𝑀𝑂𝑅 . The distance from O to the
- When R = 0, the force-couple system reduces to the couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 . line of action of R is d = 𝑀𝑂𝑅 /R (Fig. 3.38c)
CHAPTER 3 (Rigid Bodies: Equivalent Systems of Forces) ASHAL PADILLA HAJYAMIRI

✓ Assuming here that the forces are parallel to the y axis (Fig. 3.40a), we note that their
sum R is also parallel to the y axis.
✓ since the moment of a given force must be perpendicular to that force, the moment
about O of each force of the system and thus the moment resultant 𝑀𝑂𝑅 lie in the zx
plane
✓ force-couple system at O consists of a force R and a couple vector 𝑀𝑂𝑅 that are
mutually perpendicular (Fig. 3.40b)
✓ the reduction of a system of forces is considerably simplified if we resolve the forces ✓ we can reduce them to a single force R (Fig. 3.40c) or, if R = 0, to a single couple of
into rectangular components. The force-couple system at O is then characterized by moment 𝑀𝑂𝑅
the components (Fig. 3.39a):
- In practice, the force-couple system at O is characterized by the components:

✓ To reduce the system to a single force R, the moment of R about O must be equal to
𝑀𝑂𝑅 . If we denote the coordinates of the point of application of the resultant by x and - The reduction of the system to a single force can be carried out by moving R to a new point
y and apply equation (3.22) of Sec. 3.1F: of application A(x, 0, z), which is chosen so that the moment of R about O is equal to 𝑀𝑂𝑅 :

➢ This represents the equation of the line of action of R. We can also determine the x
and y intercepts of the line of action of the resultant directly by noting that 𝑀𝑂𝑅
must be equal to the moment about O of the y component of R when R is - By computing the vector products and equating the coefficients of the corresponding unit
attached at B (Fig. 3.39b) and to the moment of its x component when R is vectors in both sides of the equation, we obtain two scalar equations that define the
attached at C (Fig. 3.39c). coordinates of A:

3. Parallel forces
✓ have parallel lines of action and may or may not have the same sense ➢ These equations express the fact that the moments of R about the x and z axes
must be equal, respectively, to 𝑀𝑥𝑅 and 𝑀𝑧𝑅