MA1014 Mathematics (Algebra) Lecturer: Aruna Bandara

Semester 1 (Intake 2023)

Lecture 12

From the last week...

According to exercise 2 of lecture 11, for a given column vector X ∈ Rn ,

v
n
X
u n
uX
∥X∥1 = |xi |, ∥X∥2 = t x2i , and ∥X∥∞ = max |xi |.
1≤i≤n
i=1 i=1

Remark. For any vector X ∈ Rn ,

∥X∥∞ ≤ ∥X∥2 ≤ ∥X∥1 .

 
4
 
−4
Exercise 1. Suppose X =  . Show that ∥X∥∞ ≤ ∥X∥2 ≤ ∥X∥1 .
 
4
 
 
4

Definition. • The set {X|X ∈ Rn , ∥X∥ ≤ 1} is called the unit ball in Rn with
respect to the norm ∥∥.

• If X ∈ R2 (i.e. X is in 2-space) then the unit ball is also called the unit disc in
R2 with respect to the norm ∥∥.

Remark. Homework 2 in lecture 11 describes unit discs in R2 with respect to the norms
∥∥1 , ∥∥2 , and ∥∥∞ .
MA1014 Page 2 of 5 Lecture 12

12 Complex Numbers and Complex Functions

12.1 Euler’s Formula

If x is a real number, e is the base of the natural logarithm, and i is the imaginary unit
then Euler’s formula is given by

eix = cos x + i sin x.

Derivation of Euler’s formula involves the use of power series.

Exercise 2. For a complex variable z, the power series expansion of ez is given by

z z2 z3
ez = 1 + + + + ··· .
1! 2! 3!

For a real variable x, the power series expansions of cos x and sin x are respectively given
by
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!

and
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ··· .
3! 5! 7!

Derive Euler’s formula.

12.2 Polar representation

A complex number z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R can be represented in polar form as

p
z = ρeiθ where ρ = x2 + y 2 and θ is the angle between OP line segment and the
positive direction of the x-axis. (See figure 1.) Clearly, x = ρ cos θ, y = ρ sin θ, and
−1 y
 
θ = tan ; 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
x
MA1014 Page 3 of 5 Lecture 12

Figure 1:

Exercise 3. Show that polar representation is consistent with Euler’s formula.

Remark. The collection of all complex numbers of the form z = eiθ forms a circle of
radius one (unit circle) in the complex plane centered at the origin. That is the equation
for the unit circle centered at the origin in the complex plane is z = eiθ .

Exercise 4. Use Euler’s formula to find the nth roots of unity (1).

12.3 Euler’s Identity

Euler’s Identity is a famous equation in mathematics, often considered one of the most
beautiful equations due to its simplicity and the fundamental constants it connects. It is
expressed as:
eiπ + 1 = 0

In Euler’s Identity,

• the equation links five of the most important numbers 0, 1, π, e, i in mathematics.

• the equation includes basic arithmetic operations, addition, multiplication, and

exponentiation at once.

12.4 Complex functions

A complex function f (z) = w can be introduced by considering two complex planes. One
is the z-plane containing the points z = x + iy and the other is the w-plane containing
MA1014 Page 4 of 5 Lecture 12

the points w = u + iv as shown in figure 2.

z-plane w-plane

Figure 2:

Consider the sets of points D in the z-plane and D′ in the w-plane. If f is a function
from D to D′ then for each point z ∈ D, there exists a unique corresponding point w ∈ D′
such that f (z) = w. The set D is said to be mapped into the set D′ by a single-valued
function of the complex variable z. A point w0 in the w-plane corresponding to a
point z0 in the z-plane is called the image of z0 . Then the set {f (z)|z ∈ D} is called the
image of f . Furthermore, D and D′ are respectively called the domain and co-domain
of f .
The complex function f can be written in the Cartesian form as

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

where z = x + iy and u(x, y) and v(x, y) are real functions of two real variables x and y.

Exercise 5. Write the function f (z) = z 2 − z + 2 in Cartesian form.

12.5 The limit of a function

Definition 12.5.1. limz→z0 f (z) = L if for each ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for
each z ∈ C if 0 < |z − z0 | < δ then |f (z) − L| < ϵ.

Remark. In the above definition, L is a complex number. We say limz→z0 f (z) exists if
limz→z0 f (z) = L for some complex number L.
MA1014 Page 5 of 5 Lecture 12

Note. The difference between the limit of a complex function and the limit of a function
of a real variable is that for real functions, when considering the limit at a point, we could
approach the point either from the left or from the right. However, with the function f (z),
we should approach the point z0 along any path in the complex plane. We only require
that the distance |z − z0 | decreases to zero.

Example 1. (i). Find the limit of f (z) = z 2 − z as z → 2 + i along each of the paths
(a), (b), and (c) indicated in figure 3.

Figure 3:

(ii). Show that

lim f (z) = 1 + 3i.
z→2+i

z
Example 2. Show that limz→0 does not exist.
z