Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Mathematics for Social Sciences

Getachew Bitew

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

2021/22
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Out lines

1 Propositional Logic and Set Theory

Logical connectives
Compound (or complex) propositions
Tautology and contradiction

2 Open propositions and quantifiers

Quantifiers
Argument and Validity

3 The concept of a set

Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Propositional Logic and Set Theory

Definition
A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value
(either True or False but not both).

The following sentences are propositions.

(a) Athlet Haile Gebresilasie is an Ethiopian.
(b) 2+3=7
The following sentences are not propositions.
(a) Shut up.
(b) x+3=7
Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T )
or false (denoted by F). Propositions are denoted by small letters
such as p, q, r, and so on.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Logical connectives

(a) Conjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective ”and,” the
proposition formed is a logical conjunction. “and” is denoted by
”∧”. So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, p and q, is
written as:
p ∧ q read as “ p and q,” or “ p conjunction q ”. p and q are
called the components of the conjunction. p ∧ q is true if and only
if p is true and q is true.

p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Example
Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
p ∧ q: 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
p ∧ r : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of
Ethiopia. (True)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Disjunction

(b) disjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective ”or,” the
proposition formed is a logical conjunction. “and” is denoted by
”∨”. So, the logical disnjunction of two propositions, p and q, is
written as:
p ∨ q read as “ p or q,” or “ p disjunction q ”. p and q are called
the components of the conjunction. p ∨ q is false if and only if p is
false and q is false.

p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Example
Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
p ∨ q: 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
p ∨ r : 3 is an odd number or Addis Ababa is the capital city of
Ethiopia. (True)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Implication

(c) Implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective ”implies,”
the proposition formed is a logical implication. “implies” is
denoted by ” =⇒ ”. So, the logical implication of two
propositions, p and q, is written as:
p =⇒ q read as “ p implies q,” p =⇒ q is false if and only if p
is true and q is false.

p q p =⇒ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Example
Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
p =⇒ q: 3 is an odd number implies 27 is a prime number.
(False)
p =⇒ r : 3 is an odd number implies Addis Ababa is the capital
city of Ethiopia. (True)

p =⇒ q can also be expressed as follows.

If p, then q.
q if p.
p only if q.
p is sufficient for q.
q is necessary for p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Bi-implication

(d) Bi-implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective ”bi-implies,”
the proposition formed is a logical bi-implication. “Bi-implication”
is denoted by ”⇔”. So, the logical bi-implication of two
propositions, p and q, is written as:
p ⇔ q read as “ p bi-implies q,” p ⇔ is false if and only if p and q
have different truth values.
p q p⇔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Example
Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
p ⇔ q: 3 is an odd number bi-implies 27 is a prime number.
(False)
p ⇔ r : 3 is an odd number bi-implies Addis Ababa is the capital
city of Ethiopia. (True)

p ⇔ q can also be expressed as follows.

p if and only if q.
p is sufficient and necessary for q.
q is sufficient and necessary for p.
p implies q and q implies p
p is equivalent to q.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Logical connectives

Negation

Given any proposition p, we can form the proposition ¬p called the

negation of p. The truth value of ¬p is F if p is T and T if p is F .
Example
Let p: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
¬p: Addis Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Compound (or complex) propositions

Compound (or complex) propositions

Definition
The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by
connective(s) is called a compound statement.

Example
p ∧ (q =⇒ r ), p ∧ (¬q ∨ r )

The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a

table, called a truth table. If the compound proposition contains
two component propositions, then there are four possible
combinations of truth values for the components. If the compound
proposition contains three component propositions, then there are
eight possible combinations of truth values for the components. In
general, if the compound proposition contains n component
propositions, then there are 2n possible combinations of truth
values for the components.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Compound (or complex) propositions

Definition
Two compound propositions P and Q are said to be equivalent if
they have the same truth value for all possible combinations of
truth values for the component propositions occurring in both P
and Q. In this case we write P ≡ Q.

Example
Show that P : p =⇒ q and Q : ¬q =⇒ ¬p are equivalent.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Compound (or complex) propositions

Given the conditional p =⇒ q.

q =⇒ p is the converse of p =⇒ q.
¬p =⇒ ¬q is the inverse of p =⇒ q,
¬q =⇒ ¬p is the contapositive of p =⇒ q.

Example
If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.
Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
Contrapositive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does
not live in Addis Ababa.
Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not
live in Ethiopia.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Tautology and contradiction

Tautology and contradiction

Definition
A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true
regardless of the truth values of its component propositions. If, on
the other hand, a compound proposition is always false regardless
of its component propositions, we say that such a proposition is a
contradiction.
A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is
called a contingency.
Example
p ∨ ¬p is tautology, p ∧ ¬p is contradiction, p =⇒ q is
contingency
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Tautology and contradiction

Logical equivalence, which satisfy various laws or identities are

presented below.
1. Idempotent Laws:
(a) p ≡ p ∧ p,
(b) p ≡ p ∨ p
2. Commutative Laws:
(a) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p,
(b) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p
3. Associative Laws;
(a) p ∧ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∧ r ,
(b) p ∨ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∨ r
4. Distributive Laws:
(a) p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r ),
(b) p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Tautology and contradiction

5. De Morgan’s Laws:
(a) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q,
(b) ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
6. Law of Contrapositive:
p =⇒ q ≡ ¬q =⇒ ¬p.
7. Complement Law:
¬(¬p) ≡ p.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Open propositions and quantifiers

Definition
An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that
contains one or more variables and whose truth value depends on
the values assigned for the variables.

We represent an open statement by a capital letter followed by the

variable(s) in parenthesis, example P(x), Q(x, y ) etc.
Example
Here are some open propositions:
x is the day before Sunday.
x is a city in Africa.
x is greater than y

The collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open

sentence is called the universal set (the universe of discourse)
and denoted by U
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Definition
Two open propositions P(x) and Q(x) are said to be equivalent if
and only if P(a) ≡ Q(a) for all individual a in the specified (
universal) set U..

Example
Let P(x) : x 2 − 1 = 0
Q(x) : |x| ≥ 1. Show that P(x) and Q(x) are equivalent in
U = {−1, − 21 , 0, , 1}.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Quantifiers

Quantifiers

1 Universal quantifier:
The phrases ”for every x”, ”for each x” and ”for all x” are
universal quantifiers.
denoted by ∀x,
If P(x) is an open proposition with universe U, then ∀x(P(x),
is a quantified proposition and is read as ”for every x ∈ U with
property P(x).
2 Existential quantifier:
The phrases ”for some x”, ”for at least one x” and ”there
exists an x” are existential quantifiers.
denoted by ∃x,
If P(x) is an open proposition with universe U, then ∃x(P(x),
is a quantified proposition and is read as ”for there exists”
x ∈ U with property P(x).
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Quantifiers

To show that ∀x(P(x)) is F, it is sufficient to find at least one

a ∈ U such that P(a) is False.
To show that ∃x(P(x)) is T, it is sufficient to find at least one
a ∈ U such that P(a) is True.
Example
Write the following statements using quantifiers, and determine
the truth value.
(a) For each real number x > 0 such that x 2 + 1 > 0
(b) There is a real number x such that x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0
(c) he square of any real number is nonnegative.

Negation of quantified proposition

¬(∀x)P(x) ≡ (∃x)¬P(x)
¬(∃x)P(x) ≡ (∀x)¬P(x)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Quantifiers

Example
Let U = R.
¬(∃x)(x < x 2 ) ≡ (∀x)(x ≥ x 2 )

Example
1 Symbolize (translate) the following statements involving
quantifiers.
(a) All rationals are reals.
(b) No rationals are reals.
(c) Some rationals are reals.
(d) Some rationals are not reals.
2 Let U =The set of integers, P(x) : x is a prime number,
Q(x): x is an even number, R(x) : x is an odd number.
Determine the truth value of the following propositions.
(a) ∃x(P(x) =⇒ Q(x))
(b) ∀x(P(x) =⇒ Q(x))
(c) ∀x(R(x) ∧ Q(x))
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Quantifiers

Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations

(i) (∀x)(∀y )P(x, y ) means ”for all x and for all y

property P(x, y ) holds.
(ii) (∃x)(∃y )P(x, y ) means ”there exists an x and there
exists a y for which P(x, y ) holds.
(iii) (∀x)(∃y )P(x, y ) means ”for every x there exists a y
such that P(x, y ) holds.
(iv) (∃x)(∀y )P(x, y ) means ”there exists an x which
stands to every y with relation P(x, y ).
Example
Determine the truth value of the following.
Let U = The set of integers.
(i) (∀x)(∀y )(x + y = 7)
(ii) (∃x)(∃y )(x + y = 7)
(iii) (∀x)(∃y )(x + y = 7)
(iv) (∃x)(∀y )(x + y = 7)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Argument and Validity

Argument and Validity

Definition
An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of
statements p1 , p2 , · · · , pn , called hypotheses or premises, yield
another statement q, called the conclusion.

Such a logical deduction is denoted by: p1 , p2 , · · · , pn ` q or

p1
p2
.
.
.
pn

q
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Argument and Validity

Example
If Addis Ababa is in Ethiopia, then it is in Africa. Addis Ababa is
not in Africa. Therefore, Addis Ababa is not in Ethiopia. Write the
argument form.

Definition
An argument form p1 , p2 , · · · , pn ` q is said to be valid if q is true
whenever all the premises p1 , p2 , · · · , pn are true; otherwise it is
invalid.

Example
Investigate the validity of the following argument:
(a) p =⇒ q, ¬q ` ¬p
(b) p =⇒ q, ¬q =⇒ r ` p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Argument and Validity

Rules of inferences

1. Modes Ponens:

p
p =⇒ q
q
2. Modes Tollens:
¬q
p =⇒ q
¬p
3. Principle of Syllogism

p =⇒ q
q =⇒ r
p =⇒ r
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Argument and Validity

4. Principle of Adjunction:
p
p
(a) q (b)
p∨q
p∧q
5. Principle of Detachment:

p∧q
p, q
6. Modes Tollendo Ponens:

¬p
p∨q
q
7. Modes Ponendo Tollens:

¬(p ∧ q)
p
¬q
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Argument and Validity

8. Constructive Dilemma:

(p =⇒ q) ∧ (r =⇒ s)
p∨r
q∨s
9. Principle of Equivalence:

p⇔q
p
q
10. Principle of Conditionalization:

p
q =⇒ p
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

The concept of a set

The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects that

share a certain property or certain properties.
we use capital letters to denote the names of sets and
lowercase letters for elements of a set.
If A is a set, then the objects of the collection are called the
elements or members of the set A. If x is an element of the
set A, then we write as x ∈ A. If x is not an element of the
set A, then we write as x ∈ / A.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Descriptions of set

Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four

different ways.
1. Verbal Method: using an ordinary English statement.
Example
The set of vowels in English alphabet.
The set of all countries in Africa.
2. Roster/Complete Listing Method: listing all elements
of a set.
Example
A = {a, e, i, o, u}

3. Partial Listing Method:when the number of elements

of a set may be too large to list them all, we list out
few elements followed (or preceded) by three dotes
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Example
N = {1, 2, 3, · · · }

4. Set-builder Method: using an open proposition.

The general form is A = {x : P(x)} or A = {x | P(x)}
Example
A = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
B = {n : n is aneven integer}

Definition
The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and
is denoted by ∅ or {}.

Example
A = {x ∈ R : x 2 + 1 = 0} is an empty set.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Definition
A set is finite if it has limited number of elements and it is called
infinite if it has unlimited number of elements.
Relationships between two sets
Definition
A set B is said to be a subset of set A (or is contained in A),
denoted by B ⊆ A, if every elements of B is is an element of A.
That is,
(∀x)(x ∈ B =⇒ x ∈ A)

For any set A, ∅ ⊆ A and A ⊆ A.

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4}, D = {x ∈ N | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5}.
Thus, B ⊆ A, A ⊆ D.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Definition
Sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same
elements. That is,

(∀x)(x ∈ B ⇔ x ∈ A)

Example
The sets {1, 2, 3}, {2, 1, 3} and {3, 2, 1} are equal.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and D = {x ∈ N | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} are equal.

Definition
Set B is said to be a proper subset of set A if every element of B
is also an element of A, but B has at least one element that is not
in A. In this case, we write B ⊂ A. That is,

B ⊂ A ⇔ (∀x)(x ∈ B =⇒ x ∈ A) ∧ (A 6= B)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Definition
Let A be a set. The power set of A, P(A) is the set whose
elements are all A. That is

P(A) = {B | B ⊆ A}

Example
Find the power set of
(a) A = {∅, 0}.
(b) B = {a, b, c}

If a set A is finite with elements n, then the number of subsets of

A is 2n .
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Set Operations and Venn diagrams

Definition
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B,is the set of all
elements that are either in A or in B (or in both sets). That is,

A ∪ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}

Definition
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B,is the set
of all elements that are in A and B . That is,

A ∩ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}

Definition
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A − B,is the set of
all elements in A but not in B . That is,
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Definition
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A − B, is the set
of all elements in A but not in B. This set is also called the
relative complement of B with respect to A. Mathematically,

A − B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈
/ B)}

A − B also denoted by A\B.

Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Definition
: Let A be a subset of a universal set U. The absolute complement
(or simply complement) of A, denoted by A0 (or Ac or Ā), is
defined to be the set of all elements of U that are not in A. That is

A0 = {x : x ∈ U ∧ x ∈
/ A}

Definition
The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A4B is
the set
A4B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A)

Example
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Theorem
For any two sets A and B, the following holds.
(a) (A0 )0 = A
(b) A0 = U − A
(c) A − B = A ∩ B 0
(d) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 , (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0
(DeMorgan’s law)
(e) A ⊆ B =⇒ B 0 ⊆ A0
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Theorem
For any three sets A, B and C , the following holds.
(a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (∪ is commutative)
(b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (∩ is commutative)
(c) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ) (∪ is associative)
(d) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ) (∩ is associative)
(e) A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ) (∪ is distributive
over ∩)
(f) A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) (∩ is distributive
over ∪)
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Venn diagrams

A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the

sets involved in the discussion.
Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is
enclosed in a rectangle, which represents the universal set U.
Propositional Logic and Set Theory Open propositions and quantifiers The concept of a set

Example
Consider the venn diagram below, and find A ∩ B, A\B, A4B.
Function

Mathematics for Social Sciences

Getachew Bitew

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

2021/22
Function

Out lines

1 Function
The real number system and arithmetic operations
Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic
Review of relations and functions
Real Valued functions and their properties
Polynomial function
Rational Functions and their Graphs
Exponential function
Logarithm function
Function

The real number system and arithmetic operations

The real number system

Definition
The set of natural numbers is given by N = {1, 2, 3, · · · }.
The set of integers is given by
Z = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }.
The set
n a of rational numbers iso given by
Q= : a ∈ Z ∧ 0 6= b ∈ Z .
b
A number which can not be written as the quotient of two integers
is an irrational number.
Definition
The set of real numbers denoted by R can be described as the
union of the set of rational and irrational numbers. That is,

R = {x : x is a rational number or an irrational number}

Function

The real number system and arithmetic operations

Each point on the number line corresponds a unique real number

and vice-versa.

The four arithmetic operations

Addition, subtraction, multiplication and Division.
Properties
The commutative Properties:
1. For addition: a + b = b + a
2. For multiplication: ab = ba
Function

The real number system and arithmetic operations

The associative properties:

3. For addition: a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
4. For multiplication: a(bc) = (ab)c
The distributive properties:
5. a(b + c) = ab + ac or (b + c)a = ba + ca
Identities:
6. For addition: There is a unique number called
the additive identity, represented by 0, which has
the property that a + 0 = 0 + a for all real
numbers a.
7. For Multiplication: There is a unique number
called the multiplicative identity, represented by
1, which has the property that a.1 = 1.a for all
real numbers a.
Function

The real number system and arithmetic operations

Inverses:
8. For addition: Each real number a has a unique
additive inverse, represented by −a which has
the property that a + −a = −a + a = 0
9. For Multiplication: Each real number a, except
0 has a unique additive inverse, represented by
1
which has the property that
a   
1 1
a. = .a = 1
a a
Closure properties:
10. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a
real number.
11. For Multiplication: The product of two real
numbers is a real number.
Subtraction and division are defined
 by:
1
x − y = x + (−y ) and x ÷ y = x. , where y 6= 0.
y
Function

The real number system and arithmetic operations

The order relations

The order relation on the set of real numbers: We compare two

real numbers using < or > or ≤ or ≥.

The order property

1 Trichotomy: If x and y are numbers, exactly one of the
following holds: x < y or y < x or x = y
2 Transitivity: x < y , y < z =⇒ x < z
3 Addition:x < y ⇔ x + z < y + z
4 Multiplication:
When z is positive, x < y ⇔ x.z < y .z,
When z is negative, x < y ⇔ x.z > y .z.
Function

The real number system and arithmetic operations

Let a and b be two real numbers such that a < b, then the
intervals which are subsets of R with end points a and b are
denoted and defined as below:
(i) (a, b) = {x : a < x < b} open interval from a to b,
(ii) [a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b} closed interval from a to b,
(iii) (a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b} open-closed interval from a
to b,
(iv) [a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b} closed-open from interval
from a to b,
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Linear Equations and Inequalities:

Definition (Linear equation)

A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in
the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are constants, and a 6= 0.

Example
1
3x − 5 = 0, x = 5, x + 8 = 0 are linear equations.
2

The solution of a linear equation ax + b = 0, where a 6= 0 is

b
given by x = − .
a
If a1 6= a2 , the solution of an equation of the form
b2 − b1
a1 x + b1 = a2 x + b2 is given by x = ,
a1 − a2
If a1 = a2 the solution of a1 x + b1 = a2 x + b2 does not exist
when b1 6= b2 , and has many solutions when b1 = b2 .
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

To find the solution of a linear equations the following properties

are important:
1 The addition property: If a = b then a + c = b + c

2 The multiplication property: If a = b then ac = bc

Example
Solve for x
(a) 820x = 10x + 30(50 − x)
(b) 3(2x + 1) = 2(1 − 5x) + 6x + 11

Example
Find the solution set of  
8x + 3 5
(a) − 5(x + 2) = −3 x +
2 6
(b) 5x − 2(x − 1) + 4 = 3(x + 2)
(c) 6 + 3(1 − x) = 2(1 − 5x) + 7x
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Example
A computer discount store held an end of summer sale on two
types of computers. They collected Birr 41,800 on the sale of 58
computers. If one type sold for Birr 600 and the other type sold for
Birr 850, how many of each type were sold?

Definition (Linear inequalities)

A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form
ax + b < 0, where a, and b are constants with a 6= 0. (< can be
replaced with >, ≤, or ≥.)

Example
2x − 7 > 9, 5x ≤ 4, 1 − x ≥ 10 are examples of linear inequalities.

To solve the inequalities, we use properties of order relation.

Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Example
Find the solution set of
(a) 5x + 8(20 − x) ≥ 2(x − 5)
(b) 3x − 5(x + 2) ≥ 0
(c) x − 4(x + 1) ≥ −13 − (x − 2)
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Quadratic equations and inequalities

Definition (Quadratic equation)

A quadratic equation is an equation that can be put in the form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants with a 6= 0.

Example
3x 2 + x + 1 = 0, x 2 = 4, x 2 + 6x = 0 are quadratic equations.

To solve a quadratic equation, the following properties can be

used.
The zero-Product Rule If a.b = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0.
√
The square Root Theorem If x 2 = d, then x = ± d
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Example
Solve the following equations
(a) 4x 2 + 10x = 6 (b) 5x 2 − 6 = 8 (c) (x − 2)2 = 6

The quadratic formula:

The solutions (roots) of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
with a 6= 0 is given by
√
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Example
Solve the following equations using quadratic formula
(a) x 2 − 8x = −6 (b) x 2 − 5x + 6 = 0
(c) x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 (d) x 2 + x + 1 = 0
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Definition (Quadratic inequalities)

A quadratic inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form
ax 2 + bx + c < 0, where a, b and c are constants with a 6= 0. (<
can be replaced with >, ≤, or ≥.)

Example
2x 2 + 5x − 3 > 0, x 2 + 5x + 6 ≤ 0, x − x 2 ≥ 2 are examples of
linear inequalities.

Note that a.b > 0 if and only if both a and b are either positive or
negative. We determine solution of the quadratic inequalities by
examining the sign of the factors. After putting the inequality in
the standard form, we will examine the sign of each factor of the
expression for the various values of x. This process is called sign
analysis.
Function

Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic

Example
Solve the following quadratic inequalities
(a) 2x 2 + 5x − 3 > 0 (b) x 2 − 5x + 6 ≤ 0
(c) x 2 − 2x − 2 < 0
Function

Review of relations and functions

Cartesian Product

Definition
Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B,
denoted by A × B, is the set which contains every ordered pair
whose first coordinate is an element of A and second coordinate is
an element of B. That is,

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ Aandb ∈ B}

Example
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {x, y }. Find A × B and B × A.

Definition (Equality of ordered pairs)

Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c
and b = d.
Function

Review of relations and functions

Definition (Relation)
Let A and B are sets, any subset of A × B is called a relation from
A into B.

Example
1 Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7} and B = {6, 8}. Let R be the relation
”less than” from A into B. Then
R = {(1, 6), (1, 8), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8)}
2 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {a, b, c}. The following are
relations from A into B.
(i) R1 = {(1, a)}
(ii) R2 = {(2, b), (3, b), (4, c), (5, a)}
Function

Review of relations and functions

Definition
Let R be a relation from A into B. Then
(a) the domain of R, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of
the first coordinates of the elements of R. That is

Dom(R) = {a : (a, b) ∈ R}

(ii) the range of R, denoted by Range(R), is the set of

the second coordinates of the elements of R. That is

Range(R) = {b : (a, b) ∈ R}

If R is the relation from A into B, then the set B is called the

codomain of R.
Function

Review of relations and functions

Example
1 If R = {(1, 6), (3, 6), (3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8)} is the relation from
A = {1, 3, 5, 7} into B = {6, 8, 10}. Then find Dom(R),
Range(R) and Codomain(R).
2 Let R be a relation on A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by
R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ A, a is a factor of b}. Find the domain
and range of R.

Remark
1 A relation R on a set A is called

(a) a universal relation if R = A × A.

(b) identity relation if R = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}
(c) void or empty relation if R = ∅.
2 If R is a relation from A to B then the inverse of R, denoted

by R −1 , is a relation from B to A and defined as:

R −1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) ∈ R}
Function

Review of relations and functions

Example
Let R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ N, a + 2b = 11} be a relation on N. Find
(a) Dom(R) (b) Range(R) (c) R −1

Definition (Functions)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain
corresponds to exactly one element of the range.

Example
Determine whether the following relations are functions or not.
(a) R = {(5, −2), (3, 5), (3, 7), (5, 6), (5, 8)}
(b) R = {(2, 4), (3, 4), (6, 8)}
(c) R = {(−1, 1), (1, 1), (−2, 4), (2, 4), (−3, 9), (3, 9)}

Map or mapping, transformation and correspondence are synonyms

for the word function. If f is a function and (x, y ) ∈ f then we say
x is mapped to y .
Function

Review of relations and functions

Definition
A relation f from A into B is called a function from A into B,
denoted by
f : A → B or
if and only if
(i) Dom(f ) = A
(ii) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one
element in B. That is, if (x, y ) ∈ f and (x, z) ∈ f ,
then y = z.

Remark
If (x, y ) ∈ f , then we write as f (x) = y . In this case, y is
called the image of x, and x is called the pre-image of y under
f.
The symbol f (x) is read as ”f of x”.
Function

Review of relations and functions

Example
1 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 6, 8, 11, 15}. which of the
following are functions from A to B.
(a) f defined by
f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 8.
(b) f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 15.
(c) f defined by
f (1) = 6, f (2) = 6, f (3) = 6, f (4) = 6.
(d) f defined by f (1) = 1, f (2) = 6, f (2) =
8, f (3) = 8, f (4) = 11.
2 Is f (x) = x 2 a function from R to R?
Function

Review of relations and functions

Domain, Codomain and range of a function

Definition
Let f : A → B be a function.
(a) The set A is called the domain of f .
(b) The set B is called the codomain of f .
(c) The set {f (x) : x ∈ A} is called the range of f .

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, · · · 10}. Determine Dom(f ),
Range(f ) and Codomain(f ), given that f : A → B is a function
defined by f (x) = x 2 .

Example
Determine the domain for the following functions.
2x
(a) f (x) = −3x + 5 (b) f (x) =
√ 3x −5
(c) f (x) = 3x − x 2
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Real Valued functions and their properties

The function f : A → B is called a real valued function if

B ⊆ R, and in particular if A is also a subset of R, then f is
called real function.
Example
f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 2 is real function.

Operations of functions
Let f (x) and g (x) be functions.
1 (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) The sum of two functions.
2 (f − g )(x) = f (x) − g (x) The difference of two functions.
3 (f .g )(x) = f (x).g (x) The product of two functions.
 
f f (x)
4 (x) = The quotient of two functions(provided
g g (x)
g (x) 6= 0).
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

The domain of f + g , f − g and f .g is Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ),

f
whereas the domain of is Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g ) − {x : g (x) = 0}.
g
Example
1 Let f (x) = 3x 2 + 2 and g (x) = 5x − 4. Find each of the
following, and its domain.
(a) (f + g )(x)  (f− g )(x)
(b)
f
(c) (f .g )(x) (d) (x)
g
√ √
2 Let f (x) = 4 x + 1 and g (x) = 9 − x 2 . Find each of the
following, and their domains.
(a) (f +g )(x) (b) (f .g )(x)
f
(c) (x) (d) f 3
g
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition (Composition of functions)

The composition of two functions f (x) and g (x), is denoted by
fog and is defined by

(fog )(x) = f (g (x))

The domain of fog consists of those x 0 s in the domain of g

whose range values are in the domain of f .

Example
1 Let f = {(2, z), (3, q)} and g = {(a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 5)}. Find
fog and its domain.
2 Given f (x) = 5x 2 − 3x + 2 and g (x) = 4x + 3 find fog (−2),
gof (−2), fog (x) and gof (x)
x 2
3 If f (x) = and g (x) = , find fog (x), gof (x) and
x +1 x −1
their domains.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition (Equality of functions)

Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two
conditions hold:
(i) The functions have the same domain;
(ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of
the domain.

Example
x 2 − 25
The functions f (x) = and g (x) = x + 5 are not equal.
x −5
Why?
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Types of functions

Definition
A function f : A → B is called one to one, often written 1 − 1, if
and only if for all x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 . In
other words, no two elements of A are mapped to one element of
B.

Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 7, 8}.
(i) f : A → B defined as
f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 4, f (4) = 8 is not 1 − 1.
(ii) f : A → B defined as
f (1) = 4, f (2) = 7, f (3) = 1, f (4) = 8 is 1 − 1.

Definition
A function f : A → B is called an onto function(or f maps onto B )
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition
A function f : A → B is called an onto function(or f maps onto B )
if every element of B is image of some element in A, i.e,
Range(f ) = B.

Example
f : R → R defined by f (x) = 3x + 5 is onto.
f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 2 is not onto.

Definition
A function f : A → B is called said to be a 1 − 1 correspondence if
f is both 1 − 1 and on to.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Inverse of a function

Definition
Let f is a function whose domain is A, and whose codomain is B.
Then f is invertible if there exists a function g with domain B and
codomain A, with property:

f (x) = y ⇔ g (y ) = x

The inverse of a function f is denoted by f −1 .

Not all functions have inverse. A function f is invertible(has
inverse) if it is one to one correspondence.
To find the inverse we will follow the steps below:
1 Interchange x and y in the equation y = f (x)
2 Solving the resulting equation for y , we will obtaining the
inverse function. That is y = f −1 (x).
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
Find the inverse of the following functions, if exist.
x
(a) f (x) = x 3 f (x) =
x +2

Properties
If f : A → B and g : B → C are invertible,then
(a) (f −1 )−1 = f
(b) (f −1 of )(x) = x
(c) (fof −1 )(y ) = y
(d) (fog )−1 = g −1 of −1
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Polynomial function

Definition
A polynomial function is a function of the form

p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

where n is non negative integer, an , an−1 , · · · , a0 are constants.

In a polynomial function p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

where an 6= 0,
the constants an , an−1 , · · · , a0 are called coefficients of the
polynomial p,
n is the degree of p,
an is called the leading coefficient of p,
an x n is the leading term, and a0 is called the constant term of
p.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
f (x) = 2x 5 − 3x 4 − x 3 + 5x + 7 is a polynomial function of degree
5. g (x) = 2x −3 − 4x 2 + 10 is not polynomial function (Why?)

Remark:
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
Properties
The domain of the polynomial function is the set of real
number.
The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The
word smooth means that the graph does not have any sharp
corners as turning points.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition
The zero (sometimes called roots) of a function f is (are) the
value(s) of x such that f (x) = 0.

Example
x = −2 and x = −3 are the zeros of a quadratic function
f (x) = x 2 + 5x + 6.

If p is a polynomial of degree n , then it has at most n zeros.

Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Theorem (Division Algorithm)

Let p(x) and d(x) be polynomials with d(x) 6= 0, and with the
degree of d(x) less than or equal to the degree of p(x). Then
there are polynomials q(x) and r (x) such that
p(x) = d(x) q(x) + r (x) , where either r (x) = 0 or the degree
|{z} |{z} |{z}
divisor quotient remainder
of r (x) is less than degree d(x).

Example
Determine the quotient, and remainder obtained when
p(x) = x 4 − 1 is divided by d(x) = x 2 + 2x

Theorem (The Remainder Theorem)

When a polynomial p(x) of degree at least 1 is divided by x − r ,
then the remainder is p(r ).
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
Find the remainder found in dividing P(x) = x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 1 by
(a) x − 2 (b) x − 3.

Theorem (The Factor Theorem)

x − r is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(r ) = 0.

Example
Which of the following is a factor of f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x − 12?
(a) x − 2 (b) x + 3 (b) x + 2

Theorem (Location theorem)

Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such
that a < b. If f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one zero of f
between a and b.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
Show that 2x 4 − 3x 2 + 5x − 7 = 0 has atleast one real root on
[1, 2].

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

If f be a polynomial function of degree n > 0 whose coefficients
are complex numbers, then p(x) has at least one zero in the
complex number system.

Theorem (The linear Factorization Theorem)

If p(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial
function of degree n ≥ 1, then
p(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ) where the ri are complex
numbers (possible real and not necessarily distinct).
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
Factorize the following polynomial functions.
(a) f (x) = x 3 − x62 − 16x
(b) f (x) = 3x 2 − 10x + 8
(c) f (x) = 2x 4 + 8x 3 + 10x 2

Theorem (The Rational Root Theorem)

Suppose that f (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 is a
polynomial function of degree n ≥ 1 with with integer coefficients.
p
If is a rational root of f where p and q have no common factor
q
other than ±1 then p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

Example
Find all the zeros of the function p(x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Rational Functions and their Graphs

Definition
n(x)
A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = , where
d(x)
n(x) and d(x) are polynomial functions and d(x) 6= 0.

Example
1 2+x x 5 + 2x 3 − x + 1
f (x) = , g (x) = 2 and h(x) = are
x x + 5x + 6 x 2 + 3x
rational functions.
n(x)
Note that the domain of the rational function f (x) = is
d(x)
{x : d(x) 6= 0}.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
Find the domain and the zero(s) of the following functions.
3x − 5 1
(a) f (x) = 2 (b) f (x) = 3
x − x − 12 x − 4x
Informal definition of limits
x approaches a+ , x approaches of a− , x approaches to +∞, x
approaches to −∞.
Graph of rational functions
To sketch the graph of a function, the following information are
important.
Domain, intercepts, asymptotes, Maximum and minimum values,
etc. Define the following!
Domain?
Intercept: the x intercept, y intercept.
Asymptotes: Vertical asymptote(s), Horizontal asymptote(s),
Oblique asymptote(s).
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example
Sketch the graphs of
1 1
(a) f (x) = (b) g (x) = , where n is positive integer.
x (x − a)n

Example
Find the Horizontal asymptote(s) of
3x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 9
(a) f (x) = 4
2x − 5x 3 + x 2 + x − 6
3x 3 − x 2 + 5x − 9
(b) g (x) = 3
2x + 4x 2 + 5x + 2
−x 2 + 4x + 3
(c) h(x) = 3
5x − 3x 2 + 7x + 8
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Example (Exercise)
Sketch the graphs of
x +2 x 2 + 3x + 2
(a) f (x) = (b) g (x) =
x −1 x2 − 1
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Exponential function

Definition
For a natural number n and a real number x, the nth power of x is
defined as
x n = x.x.
| {z · · · .x}
n times

In the expression x n, x is called the base and n is called the

exponent.

Example
25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32
1 3 1 1 1 −1 × −1 × −1 1
− =− ×− ×− = =−
3 3 3 3 3×3×3 27
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition (Zero and Negative exponent)

1
For x 6= 0, x 0 = 0 and x −n = n .
x
Note that 00 is undefined.
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition (Exponential function)

A function of the form f (x) = b x , where b > 0 and b 6= 1, is called
an exponential function with base b.

Example
 x
1
f (x) = 2x , g (x) = and h(x) = e x are exponential functions.
3
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Properties of exponential function

the domain of the exponential function is the set of real
number, and the range is the set of positive real numbers.
The y -intercept is 1.
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.
The exponential function is 1 -1.

Example
 x
1
Sketch the graphs of (a) f (x) = 3x (b) g (x) =
3

Example (Exercise)
Sketch the graphs of (a) f (x) = 3x + 1 (b) g (x) = 3x+1
(c) g (x) = −9−x + 3
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Logarithm function

Because the exponential function is 1-1, it has an inverse function.

Question: What is the inverse of f (x) = b x , where b > 0 and
b 6= 1?
Example
Determine the inverse of f (x) = 3x .

Note: For b > 0 and b 6= 1, x = b y ⇔ y = logb x.

Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Definition (Logarithm function)

A function of the form f (x) = logb x, where b > 0 and b 6= 1, is
called a logarithm function with base b.

Example
f (x) = log2 x, g (x) = log 1 x are logarithm functions.
2
Function

Real Valued functions and their properties

Properties of logarithm function

the domain of the logarithm function is the set of positive real
number, and the range is the set of real numbers.
The x -intercept is 1.
x = 0 is a vertical asymptote.
The logarithm function is 1 -1.

Example
Sketch the graphs of (a) f (x) = log2 x (b) g (x) = log 1 x
2

Definition
Common Logarithm: f (x) = log10 x is called common logarithm
function. We simply write as f (x) = log x.
Natural Logarithm: f (x) = loge x is called natural logarithm
function. We simply write as f (x) = ln x.
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Mathematics for Social Sciences

Getachew Bitew

Department of Mathematics
Addis Ababa University

2021/22
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Out lines

1 Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples
Matrix algebra(operations)
Determinant and it’s Properties
Systems of Linear Equations
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

Matrix

Definition
A matrix with m rows and n columns is a rectangular array of
numbers of the form
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
 . . . 
 ,
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
am1 am2 . . . amn

The size or order of a matrix with m rows and n columns is

m × n (and read it as m by n).
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

We often use capital letters to denote matrices, and lower

case letters to denote its elements. In short, we write a matrix
as A = (aij )m×n or A = (aij )m,n or simply A = (aij ) if the
order is not important to emphasis.
The element aij of a matrix A = (aij )m×n is located in the i th
row and the j th column.
Example
 
 1 1 −2

−4 3 3
A= and B =  2 4  are a 2 × 3 and a
1 −1 6
−4 16
3 × 2 matrices respectively

Definition
A matrix with a single column (or an n × 1 matrix) is called a
column vector(or column matrix). A matrix with single row( or
1 × n matrix) is called a row vector( or row matrix).
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

Example
 
5

A =  6  is a column vector(matrix) and B = 1 2 3 is
11
a row vector(matrix).

Definition
An m × n matrix A = (aij ) is said to be the zero (null) matrix if
aij = 0 for all i, j.

Example
 
  0 0
0 0
O= is a 2 × 2 zero matrix, O =  0 0  is a 3 × 2
0 0
0 0
zero matrix.
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

Definition
A matrix A = (aij )m×n is called a square matrix of order n( or an n
square matrix) if m=n.

Example
 
5 4 1
A =  −1 0 2 is a square matrix.
0 3 −6

Definition
The entries a11 , a22 , a33 , ...ann are called the main (principal)
diagonal elements of a square matix (aij )n .
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

Types of square matrices

(a) Triangular matrix:
A square matrix A = (aij )n is said to be a
(i) lower triangular if all the entries above
the main diagonal are 0, or aij = 0 for
all i < j
(ii) upper triangular if all the entries below
the main diagonal are all 0, or aij = 0
for all i > j.
(iii) triangular if it is either upper or lower
triangular matrix.
(b) Diagonal matrix: A square matrix D is called a
diagonal matrix if all the elements except the
principal diagonal elements are zero.

Example
content...
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

(c) Scalar matrix:

A diagonal matrix D is called a scalar matrix if the
main diagonal elements are equal.
(d) Identity matrix:
A scalar matrix whose all of its diagonal elements are
1, is an identity matrix.
Notation: An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Definitions and Examples

Equality of Matrices
Definition
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal( written as A = B) if
they have the same size and their corresponding elements are
equal.

Example
   
1 2 −1 1 2 w
A =  2 −3 4  and B =  2 x 4  are equal if and
0 −4 5 y −4 z
only if w = −1, x = −3, y = 0, z = 5.
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Matrix algebra

Definition (Scalar Multiplication)

Let A = (aij )m×n be a matrix, and α is a scalar (a number). The
product of the scalar α with matrix A, denoted by αA, is defined by

αA = (αaij )m×n

Example
 
3 −2 1
Let A = . Find 3A.
0 4 2
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Addition of Matrices

Definition
Let A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )m×n be two matrices. The sum of
A and B, denoted by A + B is defined by

A + B = (aij + bij )m×n

Example
   
−3 5 −1 4 −4 −6
Let A = and B = . Find
1 −1 7 5 11 4
A + B and B + A
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Properties

Theorem
Let A, B, C be m × n matrices and α, β be constants. Then
(a) + is commutative
(b) + is associative
(c) Existence of additive identity
(d) Existence of an additive inverse matrix
(e) scalar multiplication is distributive over addition.
(f) (α + β)A = αA + βA
(g) (αβ)A = α(βA) = β(αA)
(h) 0A = O, αO = O
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Multiplication of Matrices

Definition
Let A = (aij )m×n and B = (bij )n×p matrices. Then the matrix
product AB is defined as C = (cij )m×p with entries

cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + ai3 b3j + ... + ain bnj
Xn
= aik bkj , for 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ p
k=1

Example
 
−1 3  
0 −5
Let A =  1 −2 , B =
 ,
−3 2
0 4
 
1 −3 4
C= . Then find AB, BA, AC and CA (if exist).
−2 0 1
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Matrix multiplication is not commutative.

Theorem
Let A,B and C be matrices for which all products below make
sense. Then
(a) Matrix multiplication is associative.
That is, A(BC ) = (AB)C
(b) A(B + C ) = AB + AC , (A + B)C ) = AC + BC
(c) AI = A and IA = A
(d) α(AB) = (αA)B = A(αB)
(e) AO = O
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Transpose of matrix

Definition
The transpose of a matrix A = (aij )m×n , is the matrix
At = (aji )n×m .

Example


5 −4 7
Find At for A =  0 6 −10 .
−4 3 1

Theorem (Laws of transpose)

If A and B are matrices of the appropriate sizes, α, β are
constants, then
(a) (At )t = A
(b) (αA + βB)t = αAt + βB t
t t t
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices

Definition
A square matrix A is called
(a) symmetric if At = A.
(b) skew symmetric if At = −A.

Example
content...
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Elementary row operations

The following operations performed on a matrix A are called

elementray operations.
(i) Interchanging two rows ( Ri ↔ Rj )
(ii) Multiplying a row by a non zero constant (kRi → Ri )
(iii) Adding a multiple of entries of a row to the
corresponding entries of one another row (
Rj + kRi → Rj ).

Example
Usingelementary row
 operations, transform the matrix
3 12 6
A =  1 1 −1  to an upper triangular matrix.
1 2 3
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Remark:Two matrices are said to be row equivalent if one can be

obtained from the other by a sequence of elementary row
operations.
Definition (Row Echelon and Row Reduced Echelon Forms)
A matrix A = (aij )m×n is a row echelon form of a matrix if
(a) all the zero rows (if any) are at the bottom of rows
of A
(b) the first non zero entry in each non zero row is 1.
We call this leading 1.
(c) each leading 1 is to the right of the leading 1 element
in the proceeding rows.

Example
content...
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Definition
A matrix A = (aij )m×n is a row reduced echelon form of a matrix if
(a) A is a row echelon form
(b) If a column contains a leading 1, then all other
entries in that column are zero

Example
content...
Remark: We apply a sequence of elementary operations on a
matrix A to obtain its row echelon or row reduced echelon form.
Example
Find 
a row echelon androw reduced forms of the matrix
−1 2 −5
A =  2 −1 6 
1 1 3
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Rank of a matrix

Definition
The rank of a matrix A, denoted by rank(A), is the number of non
zero rows(columns) of its equivalent row echelon form of a matrix.

Example
Find the rank
 of the following
 matrices.  
1 1 2 1 2
(a) A =  2 2 5  (b) B =  −2 4 
3 3 2 0 −3
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Matrix algebra(operations)

Inverse of a Matrix

Definition
Let A be a square matrix of size n. The matrix A is said to be
invertible (non-singular) if there exist a square matrix B of size n
such that AB = BA = In .

Example
2
− 35
   
5 1 3
Verify that B = 1 1 is an inverse of A = .
5 5 −1 2

Notation: The inverse of an invertible matrix A is denoted as A−1 .

Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

Determinant and it’s Properties

The determinant is a function which assigns to each square matrix

A = (aij )n a number, and it is denoted by det(A) or |A| or ∆.
A. Determinant of square matrix of order 1 and
order 2
(i) For a 1 × 1 matrix A = (a11 ),
det(A) = a11 .  
a b
(ii) For a 2 × 2 matrix A = ,
c d
a b
det(A) = = ad − bc.
c d

Example
Find the determinants of the following
 matrices.
  

−3 5 1 2
(a) A = −2 (b) A = (c) A =
1 4 3 6
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

Minors and Cofactors

Definition
Let A = (aij )n be a matrix and Aij be an n − 1 × n − 1 sub matrix
of A obtained from A by deleting the i th row and the j th column.
(a) The minor of aij ,denoted by Mij is the determinant of
Aij .
(b) the cofactor of aij , denoted by Cij is defined as
Cij = (−1)i+j Mij
(c) Matrix of Cofactors of a matrix, denoted by C is a
matrix C = (Cij )n .

Example
 
1 −1 2
Let A =  −2 0 5 . Find M11 , M12 , M22 , M32 ,
−3 4 3
C11 , C12 , C22 , C32
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

B. Determinant of square matrix of order n, n ≥ 3.

Definition
For a square matrix A = (aij )n ,
Pn
(a) det(A) = ai1 Ci1 +ai2 Ci2 +....+ain Cin = k=1 aik Cik ,
where, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
(Cofactor expansion along the i th row)
(b) det(A) = a1j C1j +a2j C2j +....+anj Cnj = nk=1 akj Ckj ,
P
where, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
(Cofactor expansion along the j th column).

Example
content...
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

Properties of determinant

(a) If a matrix B results from a square matrix A by

interchanging two different rows(columns) of A, then
det(B) = −det(A)
(b) If B is obtained from A by multiplying a row(column)
of A by a real number k, then
det(B) = kdet(A)
.
(c) If A is a square matrix of order n,
det(kA) = k n det(A) for some constant k.
(d) If B is obtained from A by adding to each element of
the r th row(column) of A, k times the corresponding
element of the s th row(column), r 6= s of A, then
det(A) = det(B)
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

(e) If A is a square matrix, det(A) = det(At )

(f) If two rows(columns) of a square matrix A are
proportional then

det(A) = 0

(g) If a row(column) of A consists entirely of zeros, then

det(A) = 0.
(h) The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product
of the elements on the main diagonal.
(i) If A and B are square matrices of the same order,

det(AB) = det(A)det(B)

(j) If A is invertible, then det(A−1 ) = 1

det(A) .
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

Adjoint of a matrix

Definition
Let A be n × n matrix and Cij denote the cofactor of aij . The
adjoint of A, denoted by adj(A), is the transpose of the matrix of
cofactors, C = (Cij )n .

Theorem (Determinant test for invertiblity)

A square matrix A is invertible if and only if detA 6= 0.

Corollary
If A is an invertible matrix, then A−1 = 1
det(A) adj(A)
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Determinant and it’s Properties

Example
Find the inverse
 of each ofthe following matrices(if
 exist). 
2 3 −4 1 2 2
(a) A =  0 −4 2  (b) B =  1 3 1 
1 −1 5 1 1 3
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Definition
A system of m linear equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 , ...xn is a set
of linear equations given by

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2n xn = b2
. .
. .
. .
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + ... + amn xn = bm ,
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Using a matrix relation we write as

AX = B (1)

t
where A = (aij )m×n , X = x1 x2 . . . xn , and

t
B = b1 b2 . . . bm
A matrix A of the system (1) is called the coefficient matrix,
and the matrix obtained by adjoining the column vector B at
the end to the matrix A is called the augmented matrix of
the system, denoted by M = (A|B) or M = (A : B).
If B = O, the system (1) is called homogenous; otherwise, it
is called non homogenous.
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Example
Given a system

2x1 + x2 − 5x3 = 5
x2 + x2 − 4x3 = 0
−5x1 − 6x3 = 12

Determine
(a) The coefficient and the augmented matrices.
(b) The matrix form of the system.
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

For the system of linear equations in (1), precisely one of the

statements below is true:
1 It admits a unique Solution: There is one and only one vector
x = (x1 , x2 , ...xn ) that satisfies all the m-equations
simultaneously (the system is consistent).
2 It has infinitely Many Solutions: There are infinitely many
different values of x that satisfy all the m-equations
simultaneously (the system is said to be consistent).
3 Has no Solution: There is no vector x that satisfies all
equations simultaneously, or the solution set is empty (the
system is said to be inconsistent).
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Solving systems of systems of linear equations

Matrix Methods: Gaussian Elimination, Gauss-Jordan method,

Cramer’s rule, Inverse Method.
1. Gaussian Elimination:
The method of solving a system AX = B by transforming the
augmented matrix M = (A|B) to its row echelon form using
elementary row operations is called Gaussian Elimination.
2. Gauss-Jordan Method:
The method of solving a system AX = B by transforming the
augmented matrix M to row reduced echelon form of a matrix of
the system using elementary row operations is called Gauss-Jordan
reduction.
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Example
Using Gaussian elimination method, solve the system of linear
equations.

x + 2y + z = 3
2x + 3y − z = −6
3x − 2y − 4z = −2
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

Theorem
Let A be an invertible n × n matrix, Axi denote the matrix
obtained from A by replacing the i th column of A with the n-
vector B. If |A| =
6 0, the linear system AX = B, where

t
X = x1 x2 . . . xn has a unique solution given by
det(Axi )
xi = det(A) where i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n

[Link]’s rule:
Example
Using Cramer’s rule, solve the system of linear equations.

2x1 − x2 = 0
−x1 + 2x2 − x3 = 0
−x2 + x3 = 1
Matrix, Determinant and Systems of linear equations

Systems of Linear Equations

4. Inverse method:
Theorem
If A is an invertible matrix, the linear system AX = B has a unique
solution, which is given by

X = A−1 B