Chapter 2 Sentences, Utterances, Propositions
1) Utterance
This unit introduces basic notions in semantics, focusing on utterances and sentences. An utterance is a unique physical event
where a speaker uses language on a particular occasion. It can be a single word, phrase, sentence, or sequence of sentences.
Sentences, however, are abstract and ideal, representing a string of words following grammatical rules.
Exercise Solutions with Justifications
1) ‘Hello’
Yes (single word utterance)
2) ‘Not much’
Yes (short phrase utterance)
3) ‘Utterances may consist of…’
Yes (longer sequence of sentences, but still an utterance.
4) ‘Pxgotmgt’
No (not from any language, lacks meaning)
5) ‘Schplotzenpflaaaaaaargh!’
No (not from any language, lacks meaning)
Justifications
(1) and (2) are utterances because they represent spoken language used by a speaker.
(3) is an utterance despite its length, as it’s a continuous stretch of talk.
(4) and (5) are not utterances because they don’t belong to any language and lack meaning.
Key Points : Utterances are physical events, ephemeral and unique. Sentences are abstract, ideal representations of word strings.
Linguistics studies spoken language, focusing on utterances and sentences.
Additional Insights : Utterances can vary in length and [Link] follow grammatical [Link] utterances
and sentences is crucial for semantic analysis.
2) Sentence
A sentence is an abstract, ideal string of words following grammatical rules, existing independently of physical events. Utterances,
however, are unique physical events where language is used. This distinction is crucial in semantics.
*Exercise Solutions with Justifications*
(1) Do all performances of Macbeth begin with the same sentence?
*Yes* (same abstract sentence)
(2) Do all performances of Macbeth begin with the same utterance?
*No* (each performance is a unique utterance)
(3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence?
*No* (sentences are abstract, timeless, and placeless)
(4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance?
*Yes* (utterances occur at specific times and places)
(5) Can one talk of a loud sentence?
*No* (sentences lack physical properties)
(6) Can one talk of a slow utterance?
*Yes* (utterances have physical properties, like speed)
Key Points : Sentences are abstract, ideal representations. Utterances are unique physical events. Sentences lack time, place, and
physical [Link] have time, place, and physical properties.
Convention : Single quotation marks (‘ ‘) represent utterances. Italicized text (_sentence_) represents sentences or abstract parts.
Additional Insights : Semantics requires distinguishing between utterances and [Link] sentences’ abstract
nature is crucial. Utterances are ephemeral, while sentences are timeless.
Important Distinctions : Books contain text, not utterances or [Link] are ideal, abstract [Link]
are physical events, realizing sentences in spoken language.
3) Practice Exercise
(1) Label each as utterance (U) or sentence (S)
(a) ‘The train now arriving at platform one is the 11.15 from King’s Cross’. U
(b) The pelican ignores the linguist S
Justifications:
(a) Represents an utterance because it’s a specific instance of spoken language, enclosed in single quotation marks.
(b) Represents a sentence because it’s an abstract, ideal string of words following grammatical rules.
(2) Identify the issue with each example:
(a) John announced Mary’s here in his squeakiest voice
Issue: “Mary’s here” should be in quotation marks (‘Mary’s here’) to represent John’s utterance.
(b) ‘Mary thought how nice John was’
Issue: The sentence “how nice John was” should not be italicized since it’s part of an utterance. Alternatively, the whole example
should be italicized and the quotation marks removed.
Key Points: Utterances are specific instances of spoken language (U).Sentences are abstract, ideal representations (S).
Additional Insights: Utterances are physical [Link] are abstract and [Link] notation helps distinguish between
utterances and sentences.
4) Sentences
A sentence is a fixed string of words in a specific order. Changes to words or order create a different sentence. Sentences are
abstract, while utterances are physical events with phonetic characteristics like accent and voice quality.
_Practice Exercise_
(1) Does it make sense to ask what language (e.g., English, French, Chinese) a sentence belongs to?
_Yes_
Justification: Sentences can be associated with a specific language based on their grammatical structure and vocabulary.
(2) What languages do the following sentences belong to?
(a) Le jour de gloire est arrivé
_French_
(b) Alle Menschen sprechen eine Sprache
_German_
Justifications:
(a) The sentence uses French vocabulary and grammar.
(b) The sentence uses German vocabulary and grammar.
Key Points : Sentences have fixed word [Link] create different [Link] can be associated with a specific
[Link] have phonetic characteristics like accent and voice [Link] and voice quality belong to utterances, not
sentences.
5) Sentences
A sentence is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete thought. This definition excludes strings without
verbs or incomplete thoughts. Sentences are the basis for understanding communication, including non-sentence expressions.
Practice Exercise 1
Identify utterances as tokens of whole sentences (S) or not (NS):
(1) ‘John’
NS
(2) ‘Who is there?’
(3) ‘Mine’
NS
(4) ‘It’s mine’
(5) ‘Where shall I . . .?’
NS
Justifications : (1) Lacks verb and complete thought. (2) Complete question with verb. (3) Single word without context. (4)
Complete statement with verb. (5) Incomplete question.
6 ) *Practice Exercise 2*
Expand non-sentence utterances into full sentences:
(1) Magnus: ‘When did Goethe die?’
Fred: ‘Goethe died in 1832.’
(2) Hostess: ‘Would you like tea or coffee?’
Guest: ‘I would like coffee, please.’
(3) A: ‘Who won the battle of Waterloo?’
B: ‘Wellington won the battle of Waterloo.’
Key Points : Sentences have verbs and express complete [Link]-sentences (phrases, single words) are used in
[Link] are the basis for understanding [Link] studies meanings of both sentences and non-
[Link] are central to semantics.
7)Proposition
A proposition is the part of a declarative sentence’s meaning that describes a state of affairs. It involves persons/things and
situations/actions. Speakers typically assert propositions when uttering declarative sentences.
_Practice Exercise 1_
Determine if there are circumstances where one sentence is true and the other false:
(1) Harry took out the garbage / Harry took the garbage out
No
(2) John gave Mary a book / Mary was given a book by John
No
(3) Isobel loves Tony / Tony loves Isobel
Yes
(4) George danced with Ethel / George didn’t dance with Ethel
Yes
(5) Dr. Findlay killed Janet / Dr. Findlay caused Janet to die
Yes
_Justifications_
(1) and (2) are equivalent phrases.
(3) Love is not necessarily reciprocal.
(4) One statement is affirmative, the other negative.
(5) “Killed” implies intent, while “caused to die” doesn’t.
_Key Points_ : Propositions describe states of affairs. Truth determines whether sentences express different propositions. True
propositions correspond to facts. False propositions don’t correspond to facts. Propositions can be entertained regardless of truth.
8) _Practice Exercise 2_
Evaluate the following statements:
(1) Is it a fact that there are lions in Africa?
Yes
(2) Is the proposition that there are lions in Africa a true proposition?
Yes
(3) Is it a fact that the state of Arkansas is uninhabited by human beings?
No
(4) Is the proposition that the state of Arkansas is uninhabited by human beings true?
No
_Justifications_
(1) and (2) correspond to a verifiable fact.
(3) and (4) are false, as Arkansas is inhabited.
_Additional Insights_ : Facts are objective, verifiable states of affairs. Propositions can be believed or thought regardless of
[Link] true propositions can be known.
9) Propositions
Propositions can be entertained in the mind regardless of truth. Declarative sentences typically assert propositions, while
interrogatives and imperatives mention propositions without asserting truth.
_Practice Exercise 1_
(1) John wonders if Alice deceives him.
Yes (he considers the proposition)
(2) You say, ‘If Mary came to the party, Phyllis must have been upset.’
Yes (you mention the proposition)
(3) You ask, ‘Was your father in the Navy?’
Yes (you consider the proposition)
(4) Odd sentence: ‘Pamela considered the fact that her mother was alive and realized that it could not possibly be true.’
Yes (contradiction: ‘fact’ implies truth)
(5) Sentence: ‘Pamela considered the proposition that her mother was alive and realized that it could not possibly be true.’
No (propositions can be true or false)
10 ) _Practice Exercise 2_
(1) Is a proposition asserted in each utterance?
(a) ‘Have you seen my toothbrush?’
No (interrogative)
(b) ‘Get out of here this minute!’
No (imperative)
(c) ‘I’m afraid that I’ll have to ask you to leave’
Yes (declarative)
(2) Do sentence pairs have the same propositional content?
(a) ‘Go away, will you?’ / ‘You will go away’
Yes
(b) ‘Pigs might fly’ / ‘I’m a Dutchman’
No
(c) ‘I am an idiot’ / ‘Am I an idiot?’
Yes
_Key Points_ Propositions can be considered regardless of truth. Declaratives assert [Link] and imperatives
mention propositions without asserting truth. Propositional content is shared across sentence [Link] are language-
independent.
_Additional Insights_ Propositions are abstract, language-neutral [Link] in different languages can correspond to the
same [Link] content will be explored further in Unit 25.
11) Relation
In semantics, distinctions between utterances, sentences, and propositions are crucial.
Utterances are specific instances of spoken language. Sentences are abstract, language-specific [Link] are
abstract, language-neutral meanings.
Perfect translation between languages is debated, but assumed possible for simplicity.
The relationship between utterances, sentences, and propositions is hierarchical:
Utterances ≤ Sentences ≤ Propositions
Practice Exercise 1
Fill in the chart:
| | Utterances | Sentences | Propositions |
|------------------|------------|-----------|--------------|
| Can be loud/quiet| | - | - |
| Can be grammatical/not | | | - |
| Can be true/false | | | |
| In regional accent | | - | - |
| In particular language | | | - |
(3) Can the same proposition be expressed by different sentences?
_Yes_
(4) Can the same sentence be realized by different utterances?
_Yes_
Key Points : Propositions are abstract, language-neutral. Sentences are abstract, [Link] are specific
instances of spoken [Link] proposition, different sentences. Same sentence, different utterances.
Additional Insights : Propositions are objects of thought, public and [Link] are private, personal mental
[Link] distinctions: sentences (_sentence_), utterances (‘utterance’).Logic units will introduce proposition .
Exercise
Here are the solutions to the exercise:
*1. Key Terms and Concepts*
- Sentence: a grammatically complete string of words
- Declarative sentence: states a fact or assertion
- Utterance: a specific instance of spoken language
- Interrogative sentence: asks a question
- Proposition: the meaning or content of a sentence
Imperative sentence: gives a command or instruction
*2. Semantics and Complete Sentences*
No, semantics is not concerned only with complete sentences. Semantics studies the meaning of language, including phrases,
words, and incomplete sentences.
*3. Conventions for Sentences and Utterances*
- Sentence: italic typeface (_sentence_)
- Utterance: single quotation marks (‘utterance’)
Illustrations:
- Sentence: _The cat chased the rat_
- Utterance: ‘The cat chased the rat’
*4. Propositions*
a. Same proposition (Mary read the book / The book was read by Mary)
b. Same proposition (Fred took back the book / Fred took the book back)
c. Different propositions (The cat chased the rat / The cat was chased by the rat)
d. Different propositions (The chef cooked the meal / The chef had the meal cooked)
e. Same proposition (Hondas are easy to fix / It’s easy to fix Hondas)
*5. Asserting Propositions*
When uttering a declarative sentence, a speaker typically asserts the corresponding proposition as true. Interrogative and
imperative sentences mention propositions without asserting their truth.
*6. Asserted Propositions*
a. Asserted (John left yesterday)
b. Not asserted (Did John leave yesterday?)
c. Not asserted (Can John leave this afternoon?)
d. Asserted (John, get out of here)
e. Not asserted (John!)
*7. Propositional Content*
a. Different propositional content (Can John have some cake? / John has some cake)
b. Same propositional content (Take out the garbage / You will take out the garbage)
Shared proposition: You will take out the garbage.
c. Different propositional content (Can you pass the salt? / The salt shaker is nearly empty)
*8. Characteristics of Utterances*
Additional characteristics of utterances:
Tone (friendly, sarcastic, etc.)
Pitch (high, low, etc.)
Volume (loud, soft, etc.)
Speed (fast, slow, etc.)
Emphasis (stress on certain words)
Body language (facial expressions, gestures)
These characteristics contribute to the overall meaning and interpretation of an utterance.