TOPIC 1 : Hydrology and Fluvial Geomorphology

1.1-The drainage basin system

-The hydrological cycle refers to the cycle of water between the

atmosphere,lithosphere and biosphere. At a local scale it can be denoted
by a drainage basin.

-The drainage basin is an area drained by a river and it’s tributaries and it
is also an open system as it allows the movement of energy and matter
across it’s boundaries. It is a cycle that has a single inout which is
precipitation, it has a 2 major outputs which are runoff and
evapotranspiration, however leakage may from the deeper subsurface to
other basins may occur as a 3rd output, lastly the drainage basin also has
stores which is where water can be stored,examples include:
vegetation,surface,soil moisture,groundwater and water channels.

-Human modifications occur at every scale, such as large scale changes of

channel flow and channel storage,irrigation and land drainage. There is
also large scale abstraction of groundwater and surface water for
domestic and industrial use.

OUTPUS:

1. Evaporation- This is a critical process in the drainage basin,it is

whereby liquid turns into gas,particularly water into water vapour.
-the process whereby a solid turns directly into a gas without having
to pass through the liquid form is referred to as sublimation.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

 Temperature: Higher temperatures result in an increase in

evaporation because it provides more energy to water
molecules.
 Humidity: The amount of water vapour in the air influences
evaporation as lower humidity levels facilitate higher
evaporation rates.
 Wind speed: Wind removes air that is saturated with water
vapour from the surface and frees up space and accelerating
evaporation.
-Temperature is the most important factor and other factors
may include vegetation cover, availability of water and
surface albedo.
 -Evaporation helps maintain the balance of water between the
earth’s atmosphere and surface. This is because the water
vapur that is a product of evaporation eventually condenses
and forms clouds.
2. Evapotranspiration- This is the combined process of evaporation and
transpiration.
 It is distincted from evaporation because of the inclusion of
transpiration this can be denoted by the fact that while
evaporation occurs on the earth’s surface, evapotranspiration
is the release of water on the surface of plant’s leaves.
 Evapotranspiration plays a vital role in returtning water to the
atmosphere, and it affects humidity along with
temperature,which influences weather conditions. It can also
determine water requirements for crops and influence
irrigation.
3. River Discharge- It is defined as the volume of water flowing through
a cross sectional point in a river at a given point in time and is
measured in cubic metres per second (cumecs).
 Discharge rates vary seasonally and are influenced by factors
like melting snow in spring and dry conditions in summer.
They can also vary significantly in different geographical
locations and are influenced by regional climates,topography
and land use.
*River discharge is measured by: Q = A x V, where Q is
discharge, A is area and V is velocity. To calculate the area, the
formula: DEPTH x WIDTH is used.

FACTORS INFLUENCING DISCHARGE

 Rainfall Intensity: Heavy rain leads to an increase in discharge,

often leading to flooding.
 Land Use Patterns: Urba areas with impermeable surfaces
increase runoff, which in turn increases discharge.
  Vegetation Cover: Areas with dense vegetation tend to have
lower discharge rates due to high rates of interception and
transpiration.
 Soil Permeability: Permeable soils allow more infiltration,
reducing surface runoff and hence river discharge is also
going to be reduced.
 Topography: The slope of the land affects the speed of runoff,
which influences discharge rates.

STORES:

1. Infiltration- This refers to the process where precipitation is captured

by vegetation before reaching the ground. It temporarily holds water
on leaves,branches and stems,leading to a reduction in the volume
of water reaching the soil.
-Vegetation type,density and canopy structure determine the
interception capacity. Forests with dense canopies intercept more
precipitation in comparison to sparse vegetration.
The 3 main components of interception include:
 Interception Loss- This is whereby water retained by plant
surfaces is later absorbed or evaporated away.
 Throughfall- Water that either falls through the gaps in
vegetation or water that drops from leaves and twigs.
 Stemflow- This is whereby water trickles along twigs and
branches then finally down the main trunk.
2. Soil Water: This is subsurface water in the soil and subsurface
layers above the water table.
- Water can be held, absorbed, transmitted downwards towards
the water table or transmitted upwards towards the soil surface
and atmosphere.
- In coarse textured soils, much water is held in fairly large pores
at fairly low suctions, while very little is held in small pores.
- In finer textured soils such as clay, the range of pore sizes is
much greater and there is a higher proportion of small pores in
which the water is held at very high suctions.
- Field Capacity is the amount of soil moisture remaining after
excess water has drained away, that is in saturated or near
saturation. Wilting Point refers to the moisture level at which
permanent wilting occurs.
*Important Variations in Soil Moisture Budgets Include:
- Soil Moisture Deficit: This is the degree to which soil moisture
falls below capacity. In temperate areas,seasons such as spring
and winter have low soil moisture deficit because of high
precipitation levels and limited evapotranspiration.
 - Soil Moisture Recharge: This occurs when precipitation exceed
potential evapotranspiration. There is refilling of water in the
dried up pores of the soil.
- Soil Moisture Surplus: The period where soil is saturated and
water cannot enter, leading to surface runoff.
- Soil Moisture Utilisation: The process by which water is drawn to
the surface through capillary action.
3. Surface water: This includes bodies of water such as lakes,wetlands
and rivers that are found on the surface. These are integral
components of the hydrological cycle.
- Lakes and wetlands serve as storage basins for fresh water and
they regulate the flow of rivers, they support biodiversity and are
crucial for groundwater recharge.
- They act as buffers during floods, habitats for wildlife and sources
of irrigation and human consumption.
4. Groundwater: It is referred to as water found in the saturated zone
of the soil, and fills the pore spaces between sediments and rocks.
- Aquifers are underground layers of water bearing permeable rock
or unconsolidated materials such as gravel, sand or silt from
which groundwater can be extracted.
- Porosity refers to the amount of space between soil or rock
particles, determining the water holding capacity.
- Permeability is the ability of a rock or sediment to allow water to
pass through it.
5. Channel Storage: Involves water stored in rivers or stream channels
- Rivers can hold water in their channels, which contributes to the
overall water balance in the drainage basin.
- The size and shape of the channel, along with bed roughness
affect how quickly water flows, influencing river discharge.

BELOW GROUND FLOWS