Chapter 5
Evolution of Mobile telephony system
First Generation (1G) – Analog System
➢ 1G networks were introduced in the 1980s
➢ Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
➢ Geographical area is divided into cells (typically 10-25km), each served by a “base
station.”
➢ Cells are small so that frequency reuse can be exploited in nearby (but not adjacent)
cells.
➢ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
➢ Frequency band of 824MHz − 894MHz with 30kHz channels
➢ Analog cellular phones are insecure
➢ Paging networks are one of the oldest wireless technologies.
➢ They support one-way and two way alphanumeric messages between callers and
pagers (beepers).
The advantages of paging networks are:
➢ Very inexpensive
➢ Easy to operate for sender (from any telephone) and receiver
➢ Many options for users (numeric, alphanumeric, two-way, message storage)
➢ Wide coverage at local, regional , national, and international levels
➢ Good building penetration
The limitations of paging networks are follows:
➢ Slow data transfer rate (1200 bps)
➢ No acknowledgment (two-way paging costs extra)
➢ Some of the available paging networks are overloaded, causing delays.
Second Generation (2G) – Digital System
GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE (GSM)
GSM
What ?
GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications.
Formerly: Group Special Mobile
When ?
1982: GSM created to set standard.
1988: Industrial development started.
1991: First system deployed.
Why ?
Higher digital voice quality.
Low cost alternatives for making calls and SMS.
GSM
ARCHITECTURE
MOBILE STATION
❖ MS consists of 2 parts:
-Mobile Equipment
-SIM
❖ Mobile Equipment:
• Hardware used by the subscriber to
access the network.
• Uniquely identified by IMEI number.
❖ Subscriber Identity Module (SIM):
• Smartcard containing the International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
• Allows user to send & receive calls and
received
other subscribed services.
BASE STATION SUB-SYSTEM (BSS)
❖ BSS connects the Mobile Station with MSC through A-interface.
❖ In charge of Transmission & Reception.
❖ Consists of 2 parts:
✓ Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
✓ Base Station Controller (BSC)
Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
❖ Consists of TRAU (Transcoder/Rate Adapter Unit).
❖ Handles Speech Encoding
❖ Encryption, Multiplexing and
❖ Modulation/ Demodulation of radio signals
❖ Usually covers a single 120 degree sector of an area.
Base Station Controller (BSC)
❖ Allocation of Channels.
❖ Frequency Administration
❖ Controls the power transmission.
❖ Handovers from one BTS to another.
❖External Interfaces
• ‘Abis’ interface towards the BTS
• ‘A’ interface towards the MSC
❖Monitors and controls several BTSs
❖Management of channels on the radio
interface
❖Switching from ‘Abis’ link to the ‘A’ link
❖Interface to OMC for BSS Management
Network & switching SUB-system (NSS)
❖ Manages communication between the mobile user with the
other
users.
❖ Consists of different components as:
✓ Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)
✓ Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC)
✓ HLR & VLR
✓ AuC & EIR
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC)
➢ Heart of the GSM Network.
➢ Performs Call Routing, Call set-up and basic
switching functions.
➢ Communicates with HLR, VLR & other MSCs.
➢ Performs call switching
➢ Interface of the cellular network to PSTN
➢ Routes calls between PLMN and PSTN
➢ Queries HLR when calls come from PSTN to mobile
user
➢ Inter-BSC Handover
➢ Paging
➢ Billing
Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC)
❖ Functions as a gateway
between 2 networks.
❖ Switch to the Public Switch
Telephone Network (PSTN).
HLR &VLR
❖ HLR contains a database for subscriber specific information such as
✓ IMSI, current location of the MS, roaming restrictions
✓ Users telephone number (MS ISDN)
✓ Subscription information and services
✓ VLR address
✓ Reference to Authentication center for key
❖VLR contains a temporary database about all active subscribers and always
integrated with the MSC.
❖Copy of subscriber data from HLR
❖Location Area Code
❖Provides necessary data when mobile originates call
EIR &AUC
➢ EIR is a database that keeps tracks of handsets on the
Network using the IMEI number. It contains 3 lists:
– White List-For all known, good IMEI’s
– Grey List- For handsets/IMEI’s that are on observation
– Black List-For all bad or stolen handsets
➢ AuC handles the authentication and encryption task for the
Network. It is mainly used for security reasons.
➢ Generates unique data pattern called Cipher key (Kc) for user
data encryption
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE CENTRE (OMC)
➢ All the networks elements are connected to OMC.
➢ Keeps records of all the faults occurred.
➢ Provides a network overview and support the maintenance activities of
different operations.
GSM FREQUENCY
❖ GSM Network operates in 900 MHz & 1800 MHz bands.
❖ GSM- 900 uses
- 890-915 MHz to send information from Mobile Station to
the Base Station(Uplink).
- 935-960 MHz for the other direction (Downlink).
- 25 MHz BW with 124 channels of 200KHz spacing.
❖ GSM-1800 uses
- 1710-1785 MHz for Uplink.
- 1805-1880 MHz for downlink.
- 75 MHz with max of 375 channels with 200 KHz spacing.
2.5G Networks (GPRS)
❖ Transition path to 3G. Examples of these networks are GPRS and EDGE.
➢ Theoretically provide IP-based packet data speeds up to a maximum of 160 Kbps
➢ It takes advantage of existing 200 kHz radio channels and does not require new radio
spectrum.
➢ GPRS basically overlays a PSN on the existing circuit switched GSM network. This
gives the user an option to use a packet-based data service.
➢ The main component of a GPRS network is the GSN (GPRS Support Node) that
receives the packet data and transfers it to the Internet or other GPRS networks.
➢ To provide GPRS services on top of GSM, the network operators need to add a few
GSNs and make a software upgrade to BSCs and few other network elements.
2.75G Networks (EDGE)
➢ Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution
➢ Deliver maximum data rates up to 500 kbps using the same GPRS infrastructure
➢ Designed to address some of the limitations of GPRS
For example, GPRS impacts a network’s existing cell capacity because voice
and GPRS calls both use the same network resources.
❖ Specifically, achieving the theoretical maximum GPRS data transmission speed of
172.2 Kbps would require a single user taking over all eight timeslots without any
error protection.
❖ Finally, GPRS is based on a modulation technique known as Gaussian minimum-
shift keying (GMSK).
❖ EDGE is based on the 8 PSK modulation that allows a much higher bit rate across
the air interface.
❖ Since 8 PSK is also used in 3G, network operators need to incorporate it at
some stage to make the transition to third generation mobile phone systems.
Third Generation Network (3G) – Internet System
➢ 3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for
mobile phones and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the IMT-2000
specifications by an ITU.
➢ Application services include:
➢ wide-area wireless voice telephone
➢ mobile Internet access
➢ video calls and mobile TV
➢ all in a mobile environment.
❖ All the operators provide 3G services on the 2100 MHz band.
➢ Data rates of 144kbps to 384kbps in wide coverage areas, and 2Mbps in local
coverage areas
➢ Best known example of 3G is the UMTS
✓ CDMA2000 – America
✓ WCDMA - Europe
➢ 3G networks use a connectionless (packet-switched) communications mechanism
Long Term Evolution(4G)
4G : Long Term Evolution
• LTE (both radio and core network evolution) started with Rel-8 in 2008
• Starting from Rel-10 it is called LTE-Advanced, and Rel-13 on wards
called LTE-Advanced Pro
• The main requirements for the new access network are high spectral
efficiency, high peak data rates, short round trip time as well as flexibility in
frequency and bandwidth.
• The Evolved Packet System (EPS) is purely IP based. Both real time
services and datacom services will be carried by the IP protocol. The IP
address is allocated when the mobile is switched on and released when
switched off.
• The LTE access network is simply a network of base stations, evolved
NodeB (eNB), generating a flat architecture
• With LTE networks, the base stations had an embedded control
functionality which was called eNB (evolved NodeB), removing the need
for an RNC altogether
• LTE Advanced networks can offer maximum download speeds of up to 1
Gbps and 50Mbps for uplink
Long Term Evolution(4G Networks)
LTE-Advanced
LTE-Advanced
• Regarding latency, in the C-plane the transition time from Idle to
Connected should be lower than 50ms. In the active state, a dormant user
should take less than 10ms to get synchronized and the scheduler should
reduce the U-plane latency at maximum
• LTE Technological components:
➢ OFDM. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a frequency division
multiplexing scheme utilized as digital multi-carrier modulation method.
✓ Data is transmitted on numerous parallel narrow-band subcarriers. The symbol
time can be much longer than the channel delay spread, which reduces inter-
symbol interference.
✓ OFDM can also be implemented fairly easily with FFT processing.
✓In the UL, LTE uses SC-FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access)
instead of OFDM.
✓ The difference between OFDM and SC-FDMA is: in OFDM, FFT is applied on the
receiver side on each block of symbols and IFFT on the transmitter side. In SC-
FDMA, both FFT and IFFT are applied on the transmitter and receiver side.
✓ Due to the fact that the UL transmission power is much lower than the DL
transmission power, LTE makes good use of SC-FDMA, as it has a smaller peak-
to-average power-ratio(PAPR) than the regular OFDM that implies less complex
terminals
OFDM
• The traditional format for sending data over a radio channel is to send it
serially, one bit after another. This relies on a single channel and any
interference on that single frequency can disrupt the whole transmission.
• OFDM adopts a different approach. The data is transmitted in parallel
across the various carriers within the overall OFDM signal. Being split into
a number of parallel "sub streams" the overall data rate is that of the
original stream, but that of each of the sub streams is much lower, and the
symbols are spaced further apart in time.
• This reduces interference among symbols and makes it easier to receive
each symbol accurately while maintaining the same throughput.
LTE Technological Components
• Spectrum Flexibility:
➢ LTE can operate in various frequency bands and can be deployed with
different bandwidths so that a different spectrum may allow efficient
migration from other radio technologies to LTE
➢ LTE can operate in various frequency bands and can be deployed with
different bandwidths so that a different spectrum may allow efficient
migration from other radio technologies to LTE
➢ LTE can operate in both paired and unpaired spectrum by supporting both
FDD and TDD
• Link Adaptation:
➢Adaptive coding and modulation refers to the matching of the modulation,
coding and other signal and protocol parameters to the conditions on the
radio link. In LTE, this is implemented by QPSK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM
• Carrier Aggregation:
➢ Data speeds will be increased by using and improved version of Carrier
Aggregation technology, the process in which larger amounts of bandwidth
is made available by using more than one carrier
LTE Architecture Overview
• LTE architecture consists of LTE EUTRAN and LTE Evolved Packet Core
(EPC)
• EUTRAN(Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio) consists of eNodeB
• EUTRAN is responsible for complete radio management in LTE
• LTE EPC consists of MME,SGW,PGW,HSS,PCRF
• SGW (Serving Gateway) – is the boundary between E-UTRAN and EPC.
SGW transfers data from the eNodeB to the PGW using the S1-U (in
communication with the eNodeB) and S5 / S8 (in communication with the
PGW) interfaces. SGW is responsible for routing, forwarding, packet
marking and buffering, user mobility management, and support for
handover connections between two eNBs
• PGW (Packet Network Data Gateway) – is the boundary between the
EPC and the external packet network (Internet). PGW is responsible for
assigning IP addresses to terminals, filtering / inspecting packets,
supporting selected functionalities in the network and charging for their
use. Each terminal can be operated by many PGWs simultaneously, thus
it can access many external packet networks
Evolved Packet Core(EPC)
LTE Architecture Overview
• MME (Mobile Management Entity) :
➢ is the boundary between E-UTRAN and EPC and is responsible only for
the control plane – it transmits the signalling that enables low-level
connection management. The MME communicates with the eNodeB using
the S1-MME interface and with the HSS via the S6a interface. MME is
responsible for NAS layer signalling (Non Access Stratum), user
authentication and authorization, support for connecting UE to the
network, setting and managing bearer, selection of PGW and SGW for a
given connection, selection of a different MME when switching between
eNodeB or SGSN in case of connection for 2G / 3G networks, TA
(Tracking Area) management, roaming support.
• HSS (Home Subscriber Server):
➢ is the unit that manages user profiles, subscriptions and security
functions. HSS is responsible for e.g. user authentication when trying to
connect to the network and authorization of access to selected services.
The HSS also stores information about the user’s location, the MME unit it
is currently registered with, and the packet networks it can connect to. The
HSS operates in contact with the EPC in the control plane and
communicates with the MME via interface S6a.
LTE-A Architecture Overview
IMS: IP Multimedia Subsystem
• IMS is a reference architecture defined by the 3GPP for delivering
communication services built on internet protocol(IP).
• IMS provides a framework for evolving from classic circuit switched to
packet switched telephony.
• The Diameter protocol is used for policy control and billing
• Session initiation protocol (SIP) is used as signalling protocol
• RTP is the transport mechanism for IP-based media
• IMS-based core infrastructures to deliver highly cost-effective, flexible and
resilient voice over (VoLTE) and rich communications applications.
• Voice over LTE or VoLTE is the practice of packetizing voice over the
Internet Protocol (VoIP) and transporting both the signalling and media
components over a 4G LTE packet switched (PS) data path
• This is in contrast to delivering voice using circuit switch (CS)
methodologies
• With an IMS core as its foundation, VoLTE employs SIP for registration,
authentication addressing, call establishment and call termination
IMS Architectural Overview
IMS Architectural Overview
• Call Session Control Function(CSCF):the heart of the IMS architecture,
responsible for controlling sessions between endpoints (referred to as
terminals in the IMS specifications) and applications
• Signalling Gateway (SGW) and Media Gateway Control Function(MGCF):
provides interoperability with the PSTN
• Media Resource Functions (MRF) – provides media-related functions such
as the playing of tones and digital announcements
• Many IP Multimedia Subsystem functions can be deconstructed into distinct
functional elements. For example, the CSCF function can play three discrete
roles: Serving-CSCF (C-CSCF), Interrogating-CSCF (I-CSCF), or Proxy-
CSCF (P-CSCF).
• IMS offers many advantages and benefits:
➢Application, network and device independence: Applications are
decoupled from the transport layer. Service providers can deliver common
applications and services, with unified authentication, authorization and
accounting across diverse devices and access networks: LTE mobile
networks, Wi-Fi networks, fixed networks
➢ Service Convergence: converged, all-IP networks
IMS: Session Border Controller(SBC)
• A Session Border Controller (SBC) is a network function which secures
voice over IP (VoIP) infrastructures while providing interworking between
incompatible signalling messages and media flows (sessions) from end
devices or application servers
• They are typically deployed at both the network edge and at carrier
interconnects, the demarcation points (borders) between their users and
other service providers.
• SBCs are invaluable in providing interworking between disparate protocol
versions and optional headers.
• SBCs implement comprehensive ingress Access Control Lists (ACLs) and
rate limiting to prevent DDOS attacks while parsing each message to
eliminate malformed packet exploits.
• While Session Border Controllers were originally custom hardware
appliances, contemporary vendors have now implemented them as pure
software elements running on x86 commercial off the shelf (COTS) server
platforms.
• SBC to not only secure the media flows but also apply transcoding where
clients and servers are unable to negotiate common codec capabilities
5G New Radio:3GPP Definition
5G NR
• eMBB(enhanced Mobile Broadband)
➢ Low latency
➢ High spectral efficiency/Throughput
• mMTC(massive Machine Type Communications)
➢ Improve link budget
➢ low device complexity
➢ Long device battery life
➢ High density device deployment
• URLLC(Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communications)
➢ High reliability (low packet error rate)
➢ Low latency
• Virtualization separates the networking functions from the hardware they
run on, allowing them to be changed as technology advances. This makes
5G infrastructure a type of virtual RAN (vRAN).
• Virtualized network elements are also basis of Open RAN(O-RAN) in 5G
5G NR Architecture based on 3GPP TS 38:300
5G Core Architecture Overview
• UPF (User Plane Function) – routing and forwarding of packets between
the Internet and Radio Access Network, packet inspection, packet flow
control in the context of policies
• AMF (Access and Mobility Management Function) – management of
procedures related to registration, mobility, availability, authorization and
authentication, SMS, location
• MME/S-GW in LTE is replaced by AMF/UPF in NR and X2/S1 in
LTE are replaced by Xn/NG-C/U in NR.
• The gNB internal structure is split into two parts called CU
(Central Unit) and DU (Distributed Unit)
• This split helps to virtualize the network functionalities,
Virtualization usually mean flexibility and cost reduction
• The possibility to fully separate Control Plane (CP) from User
Plane (UP) of a centralized unit, for maximum deployment
flexibility – another cornerstone of 5G
• gNodeB is a 3GPP-compliant implementation of the 5G-NR
base station. It consists of independent Network Functions
5G NR RAN Architecture
5G Deployment Scenarios: SA and NSA
• There are two modes of 5G deployment scenarios: Standalone and Non-
standalone
• 5G SA allow to harness all features with a new end-to-end architecture that
uses mm-Wave and sub-Gigahertz frequencies
• SA 5G NR doesn’t make use of existing 4G LTE infrastructure
• 5G SA also enables more advanced network slicing capabilities
• 5G NSA NR is considered as the early version deployment mode in which 5G
networks are supported by existing LTE infrastructure
• 5G NSA fundamentally concentrates on eMBB, where 5G-supported
handsets and devices will make use of mm-Wave frequencies for increased
data capacity
• NSA will not support network slicing, URLLC, and mMTC, but its higher
broadband speeds will enable services such as video streaming, augmented
reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and an immersive media experience
• The main difference between NSA and SA is that NSA provides control
signalling of 5G to the 4G base station, whereas in SA the 5G base station is
directly connected to the 5G core network and the control signalling does not
depend on the 4G network.
5G Deployment Scenarios
2G vs. 3G vs. 4G vs. 5G