The Pre-Westphalian World (The Thirty Years War)
Reading about the Thirty Years' War, you'll notice it's hard to pin down exactly what it was
about and why it started. However, it's clear that this war was one of the biggest and most
important conflicts in early modern European history. It was made up of both declared and
undeclared wars that lasted from 1618 to 1648, affecting most of central Europe and involving
many European countries. This war was one of the longest and most destructive in European
history.
During the Thirty Years' War, the main conflict was between the Habsburgs, which included
Holy Roman Emperors Ferdinand II and Ferdinand III and their Spanish cousin Philip IV, and
the House of Austria, which included the Danish, Dutch, and especially France and Sweden. The
war raged between these houses. Additionally, it was a German civil war, as the German
principalities took sides with or against the Habsburgs, often changing sides throughout the 30
years. The war was also partly a religious conflict among Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists.
Before the Peace of Westphalia, the political system was different. The key players were the
pope, monarchs, princes, and other rulers who were loosely connected in a vague and often
conflicting hierarchy. The idea expressed by French King Louis XIV, "I am the state," was true
for other monarchs too, who participated in a very personalized international system. By the end
of the war, entire regions were devastated, armies had foraged and ruined lands, famine and
disease had greatly reduced the population in the German states, Bohemia, the Low Countries,
and Italy, and most of the combatant powers were bankrupt. The war ended with the treaties of
Osnabrück and Münster, which were part of the larger Peace of Westphalia.
The Peace of Westphalia and the Birth of Nation-States
No exact borders can be clearly defined for the region of Westphalia, as the term "Westphalia"
has been used to refer to various entities throughout history. Generally, however, Westphalia is
recognized as a region in Germany that includes the cities of Arnsberg, Bielefeld, Osnabrück,
Dortmund, Minden, and Münster. This region is well-known for the Peace of Westphalia in
1648, which concluded the Thirty Years' War. The treaties were signed in Münster and
Osnabrück.
The Peace of Westphalia didn't signify an immediate political transformation but symbolized a
major change. It consisted of several treaties signed between May and October 1648 in
Osnabrück and Münster. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) throughout the
Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch
Republic, with Spain officially recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic. The peace
involved key players such as Ferdinand III of the Habsburgs, the Kingdom of France, the
Swedish Empire, the Dutch Republic, and the rulers of the free imperial cities.
Two significant events resulted from these treaties:
1. The Peace of Münster between the Dutch Republic and Spain, signed on 30 January 1648 and
ratified on 15 May 1648.
2. Two complementary treaties signed on 24 October 1648: the Treaty of Münster (IPM),
involving the Holy Roman Emperor and France, and the Treaty of Osnabrück (IPO), involving
the Holy Roman Emperor, the Empire, and Sweden.
These treaties introduced the concept of Westphalian sovereignty, a new political order in central
Europe. This concept established the idea of sovereign states governed independently,
discouraging external interference in domestic affairs. The treaties not only ended the destructive
European wars but also marked the shift from the medieval system, where European states were
under the spiritual authority of the pope and the political rule of the Holy Roman Emperor, to a
system of sovereign nation-states.
The Peace of Westphalia was a precursor to modern international treaties and contributed
significantly to the development of international law. It marked a milestone in the emergence of
the modern international system by introducing revolutionary changes in international relations.
Post-1648, the modern state emerged as the central unit in international affairs, characterized by
a single central government exercising sovereignty, a fixed population, and defined territory.
Nation-states, a relatively new institution in human history, became prominent after Westphalia.
Unlike older political units like tribes, city-states, and empires, nation-states were sovereign,
with supreme authority within their borders and no higher authority outside. They could claim
the legitimate use of force internally and act on behalf of their people externally. The classical
international system saw a relatively small number of key players, such as England, France, and
other European nation-states, shaping international politics.