CHAPTER 3: DIODES

Chapter Outline:

3.1 The Ideal Diode

3.2 Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
3.3 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
3.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region-Zener Diodes
3.5 Rectifier Circuits
3.6 Limiting and Clamping Circuits
3.7 Special Diode Types

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 3.1 The Ideal Diode
Ideal Diode Characteristics
➢ An diode is a two-terminal device:
▪ Anode: the positive terminal
▪ Cathode: the negative terminal

➢ For positive terminal voltage → short

➢ For negative terminal voltage → open
Circuit Applications
Rectifier Diode Logic gates

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 3.2 Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
I-V Characteristics of Junction Diode
The forward-bias region, determined by v > 0 +v-
The reverse-bias region, determined by v < 0
The breakdown region, determined by v < -VZK - vZK

Forward-bias region: 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑣/𝑛𝑉𝑇 - 1)

IS (Saturation current): proportional to diode area
VT (Thermal voltage): ≈ 25mV at room temperature
n (Ideality factor): between 1 and 2

In circuit analysis, the simplified forward-bias I-V relationship

𝑖
𝑖 ≈ 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑣/𝑛𝑉𝑇 v≈ 𝑛𝑉𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝐼𝑆
Due to the exponential I-V relationship
I ≈ 0 for v < 0.5V (cut-in voltage)
Fully conduction for 0.5V < v < 0.8V → von = 0.7V

Temperature Dependence
IS doubles for every 5oC rise in temperature
v decreases 2 mV/oC for a given I
i increase with temperature for a given v.
Reverse-bias Region
i ≈ -IS
- Ideally, the reverse current is independent of reverse bias
- In reality, reverse current is larger than IS and also
increases somewhat with the increase in the reverse bias
- Temperature dependence: reverse current doubles for
every 10oC in temperature

Breakdown Region -vzk

-IS

- The knee of the I-V curve is specified as breakdown

voltage VZK for Zener breakdown mechanism
- The reverse current increases rapidly with the
associated increase in voltage drop being very small
- Normally, the reverse current is specified by external
circuitry to assure the power dissipation within a safe
range (non-destructive operation)
T: Temperature (K), B: Material dependence (5.4x1031
for Silicon), EG: band gap energy (1.12eV for silicon),
k: Boltzmann’const (8.62x10-5eV/K)

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Diffusion:
-Electrons or holes will diffuse from the region of high concentration to the region of
low concentration
- This diffusion process gives rise to net flow of charge or diffusion current

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The pn junction under open-circuit conditions (zero-bias conditions)
ID: Diffusion current from high to low
concentrarion
Depletion region: charges that
diffuse across the junction into
another region quickly recombine
with some majority charges present
there and thus disappear from the
scene. Thus some of the bound
positive/negative charges will no
longer be neutralized.
The drift current IS and equilibrium:
some of the thermally generated
Under open-circuit conditions no external holes in the n material diffuse
current exists; thus the two opposite current through the n material to the edge of
equal in amplitude ID = IS the depletion region. There the
electric field in the depletion region,
This equilibrium condition is maintained by
which sweeps them across that
the barrier voltage Vo (0.6 – 0.8v)
region in to p side. Similarly with
electrons.
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The PN Junction Under Reverse-bias Conditions

It is more easily explained if we consider exciting the junction with a constant-

current source (rather than with voltage source). The current source I is obviously
in the reverse direction and less than Is (otherwise breakdown occurs)
The current I will be carried by electron flowing in the external circuit from the n
material to the p material. This will cause electrons to leave the n material and holes
to leave the p material.
Thus the reverse current I will result in an increase in the width of, and the charge
stored in, the depletion layer. This, in turn, will result in a higher voltage across the
depletion region- that is, a greater barrier voltage-which causes the diffusion current
ID to decrease. The drift current IS will remain constant. Finally, equilibrium (steady
state) will reached when IS – ID = I
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 The PN Junction In The Breakdown Region

In the previous section, it was assumed that the reverse-current source I is smaller
than Is or, equivalently, the reverse voltage VR is smaller than the breakdown
voltage VZK.
Let the pn junction be excited by a current source that causes a const. current I
greater than Is to flow in the reverse direction. Holes move from p through external
circuit to n material. This action results in more and more of the bound charge being
uncovered; hence the depletion layer widens and the barrier voltage rises. This
latter effect causes the diffusion current to decrease . Nevertheless, this is not
sufficient to reach a steady state, since I > Is
Therefore the process leading to the widening of the depletion layer continues until
a sufficiently high junction voltage develops, at which point a new mechanism sets
in to supply the charges carriers needed to support the current I.
There are two effects: zener effect (Vz < 5V): large electric field can break covalent
bonds; and avalanche effect (Vz > 7V): minority carrier with sufficient kinetic energy
to be able to break covalent bonds

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 The PN Junction Under Forward-bias Conditions

It is easier to explain physical operation if we excite the junction by a const. current

source supplying a current I in the forward direction.
This causes majority carriers to be supplied to both sides of the junction by the
external circuit: holes to p material and electrons to the n material. These majority
carriers will neutralize some of the uncovered bond charges, causing less charge to
be stored in the depletion layer.
Thus the depletion layer narrows and the depletion barrier voltage reduces. Thus
the diffusion current ID increases until equilibrium is achieved with ID – Is = I, the
externally supplied forward current.
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 3.3 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
Circuit Analysis
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Example: Given the circuit with Vs = 5V, R = 2.5KΩ

Question 1: Use Ideal-diode model to determine I and VD.

Ans: I = Vs/R = 5/2.5k = 2mA.
VD = 0V.

Question 2: Use Constant voltage drop model to determine I

and VD. Given VDO = 0.7V.
Ans: I = (Vs – VDO)/R = (5 – 0.7)/2.5k = 1.72mA.
VD = VDO = 0.7V.

Question 3: Use Piece-wise linear model to determine I and VD.

Given VDO = 0.7V and rD = 15 Ω.
Ans: I = (Vs – VDO)/(R + rD) = (5 – 0.7)/(2500 + 15) = 1.71mA.
VD = VDO + I. rD = 0.725V
Small-signal Approximation Maclaurin Series:𝑒 𝑥 ≈ 1 + 𝑥

vD(t) = VD + vd(t)
𝑣 𝑉 +𝑣𝑑 𝑉 𝑣 𝑣
(𝑛𝑉𝐷 ) ( 𝐷 ) (𝑛𝑉𝐷 ) (𝑛𝑉𝑑 ) (𝑛𝑉𝑑 )
iD(t) = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑇𝑒 𝑇 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑒 𝑇

𝑣𝑑 𝐼𝐷
iD(t) ≈𝐼𝐷 1 + = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝑣 = 𝐼𝐷 + 𝑖𝑑
𝑛𝑉𝑇 𝑛𝑉𝑇 𝑑

𝐼𝐷
𝑖𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑔𝑑 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑 /𝑟𝑑
𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑛𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑑 =
𝐼𝐷
 DC

AC

DC+AC

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If vs (t)= 0.01 sinωt, what is id (t) ?

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Complete a D.C. Analysis: Turn off the small-signal source and replace
the junction diodes with the model

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Assume the ideal diodes are “on”, enforce with short circuits.

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 0.0172

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 3.4 Operation In The Reverse Breakdown Region- Zener Diode
Symbol And Circuit Model For The Zener Diode
Temperature Effect of Zener Diode
Design of the Zener Shunt Regulator

Superposition
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More about Diode
Diode with zero drop voltage

When the input voltage is negative, there is a negative voltage on the diode, so it
works like an open circuit, no current flows through the load, and the output voltage
is zero.

When the input is positive, it is amplified by the operational amplifier which

switches the diode on. Current flows through the load and, because of
the feedback, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage.

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 3.6 Limiting and Clamping Circuits
Clipping Circuit (Limiter)
R

vo

R1 R2

− 5  vi  5 , v0 = vi
𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑖 ≤ −5𝑉 vo = -5V vi VCC = 5v
𝑖𝑓 𝑣𝑖 ≥ 5𝑉 vo = 5V

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 Clamp circuit (DC Restorer)

Explain the resulting output voltage

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 3.7 Special Diode Types
Light Emitting
Diode (LED)

There are a lot of electrons and

holes at the junction due to
excitations P-n Electrical
junction Contacts

Recombination
produces light!!

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