COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

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DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

3. Precipitation

II. LESSON TITLE

3.1 Formation of precipitation
3.2 Different types of precipitation
3.3 Rainfall characteristics (Depth, Duration, Intensity, Hyetograph)
3.4 Point rainfall measurement
3.5 Estimation of missing rainfall data
3.6 Conversion of point rainfall to areal rainfall
3.7 Double mass analysis

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

In this chapter the description of precipitation, different types and characteristics of

precipitation will be discussed. The measurement of point rainfall and estimation of missing rainfall
data will also be tacked to help the students gather data in a given missing information of rainfall.
Furthermore, conversion of point rainfall to areal rainfall will also be discussed to widen the
knowledge of student in solving numerical problems involving precipitation considering the area
of given specific data and to analyze such using double mass analysis.

IV DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify the formation of precipitation

2. Identify the different types of precipitation
3. Apply the principles of precipitation in solving numerical problems

V. LESSON CONTENT

3. Precipitation

Precipitation is a general term to denote rainfall and snow fall liquid and solid water falling from
atmosphere. Hydrologist view precipitation as the major input to a watershed and a key to its
water yielding characteristics. Among the climatic factors, precipitation and evaporation are the
most important in hydrology and hydrometeorology. Farmers, forester and rangeland managers
view precipitation as an essential ingredient to vegetative production on the land. The annual
amount of precipitation and the high and low extremes of precipitation affect people and their use
of land and water.
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DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

3.1 FORMATION OF RAIN

Precipitation occurs when the following three conditions are met:

1. The atmosphere becomes saturated
2. Small particles or nuclei such as dust or ocean salt are present in the
atmosphere upon which sublimation or condensation takes place.
3. Water or ice particles combine and grow large enough to reach the earth against
updrafts.

Formation of Precipitation

As earlier stated, condensation is a NECESSARY but NOT SUFFICIENT condition to the

formation of precipitation. Next, we briefly describe the remaining conditions necessary to the
formation of precipitation.

3.1.1 Condensation Nuclei: These are particles in the atmosphere of the order of 0.1 to 10
µ m. These particles originate from products of combustion, oxides of nitrogen,
aerosols, salt particles, etc…
3.1.2 Growth of the water droplet: The saturated air tends to condense on these particles
– and then water droplet grow in size, become heavier, and fall to the ground as
precipitation.
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DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

Mechanism for Saturation and Precipitation

Saturation results when either the air mass is cooled until the saturation vapor
pressure is reached or moisture is added to the air mass. Precipitation occurs when an
air mass is lifted in elevation, becomes cooled and reaches its saturation vapor pressure.

Different Storm and Precipitation Characteristics

1. Frontal precipitation occurs when general circulation brings two air masses of
different temperature and moisture content together and air becomes lifted at the
frontal surface.
a. Cold Front results from a cold air mass replacing and lifting a warm air mass.
Cold fronts are characterized by high-intensity rainfall or relatively short
duration and usually cover an area narrower than that of warm fronts.
b. Warm Fronts results when warm air rides up and cover a cold air mass. It is
characterized by widespread, low intensity rainfall.

2. Orographic precipitation occurs when general circulation forces an air mass over a
mountain range. As the air mass becomes lifted, a greater volume of the air mass reaches
saturation vapor pressure, resulting in more precipitation with increasing elevation. Once
an air mass passes over a mountain, a lowering and warming of the air occurs, creating a
dry, rain shadow effect on the leeward side.

3. Convective precipitation is the result of excessive heating of the earth’s surface and
characterized by summer thunderstorms. Rapidly uplifted air can reach high altitude where
water droplets become frozen and hails forms or becomes intermixed with rainfall.
Rainstorms or hailstorms are some of the most severe precipitation events anywhere and
are characterized by high-intensity, short duration rainfall over limited areas.

Thermodynamic Considerations A necessary condition to the formation of precipitation is that the

air becomes saturated with water vapor. Saturation is the first step in the formation of precipitation
(i.e. it is necessary but not sufficient). Saturation is typically quantified by relative humidity.

The relative humidity (RH) is defined as:

ea
RH =
as
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FRAME:

where ea is the actual water vapor pressure (say in kPa or mbars) and

as is the saturation vapor pressure. Air becomes saturated if RH is 100%.

The actual vapor pressure is dependent on the water vapor concentration (or density 𝜌𝑣 )
of the parcel of air. These variables are related through the ideal gas law, given by

0.662𝑒𝑎
𝜌𝑣 =
𝑅𝑑 𝑇
where: 𝜌𝑣 is the water vapor density
𝑅𝑑 is the gas constant of dry air (=287.04 Joules kg-1 K-1)
T is the absolute temperature (K)

NOTE: the 0.622 = 18/29 which is the ratio of the molecular weights of water and air.

The saturation vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which the parcel of air is
saturated with water vapor. That is - you cannot add more water vapor to this parcel of air without
changing its temperature.

The saturation vapor pressure varies only with temperature. The relationship is known as
the Claussius-Clapeyron equation. It can be approximated by

where Tc is the air temperature (degrees C). The relationship between s e and Tc is shown
in Figure 1. Hence, RH →100%

if 1) ρv increases (for a fixed temperature) or

2) if temperature decreases.

Figure 1: Exponential variation of saturation vapor pressure with air temperature.

Decreasing temperature decreases exponentially s e (see Figure 1) thereby forcing 𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 .
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PROGRAM: NO.:
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TITLE:
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FRAME:

Classification of Precipitation Events:

Hence, the “mechanism” by which air is lifted is nominally used to classify the type of precipitation

Broadly speaking, there are 3 types of lifting mechanisms:

1. Orographic lifting: In which air is forced to go over mountains (and it’s the reason why
windward slopes receive more precipitation).
2. Frontal surface lifting: In which warmer air is forced to go above cooler air in equilibrium
with a cooler surface.
3. Convective Lifting: Warm air rises from a warm surface and progressively cools down.

All three mechanisms can lift air and hence result in the cooling process necessary to
reduce s e and attain RH=100%.

3.2 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION

1. Drizzle
❑ Sometimes called mist
❑ Consist of tiny liquid water droplets, usually with diameter between 0.1 and 0.5
mm with such slow settling rates, intensity 1mm/h
2. Rain
❑ Liquid precipitation (drops larger than 0.5 mm in diameter)
❑ It can be classified based on intensity as,
➢ Light rain - up to 2.5 mm/h
➢ Moderate rain - 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
➢ Heavy rain - > 7.5 mm/h
3. Dew
❑ Condensation on the earth’s surface, vegetal cover and the soil. This form does
not contribute to hydrologic cycle because of its small amount and it evaporates
during early morning hours.
4. Fog
❑ Fog – fine water droplets suspended in the air
5. Snow and related forms
❑ Ice crystals formed in the atmosphere by the process of sublimation.
❑ Precipitation in the form of ice crystals which usually combine to form flakes, with
an average density of 0.1 g/cm3.
6. Sleet- It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which form when rain falls through air
at subfreezing temperature.
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SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
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7. Hail- ice particles greater larger than 0.5mm in diameter formed by alternate freezing and
melting in turbulent air currents; usually associated with intense convective cells
Note: a) the form and quantity of precipitation are influenced by the action

of wind, temperature and atmospheric pressure;

b) precipitation derived from atmospheric moisture varies according

to the climate of the area;
c) different climate yield different amount of precipitation
TYPE OF CLIMATE (according to amount of rainfall)

1. Arid
▪ Very dry like desert; areas with annual rainfall of <250 mm; rainfall is not
adequate for regular crop production

2. Semi-arid
▪ Dry areas like steppes; area where rainfall is sufficient for short season
crops only.
3. Humid
▪ Exemplified by tropical countries where supply of precipitation is
distributed throughout the year and of greater amount.

3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RAINFALL ARE THE FOLLOWING:

AMOUNT is of course important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment of

the soil water, and the amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity times the
duration. For example, the amount may be the same for a high intensity short duration
rainfall as it is for a low intensity long duration rainfall.

However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the rainfall
infiltrates or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces larger size
raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher intensity storms can
damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity storms can literally displace
soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the soil erosion process. High intensity
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storms may also overwhelm the soils ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same rate,
causing infiltration-excess runoff.

DURATION refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a
short duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on soil
erosion and runoff. Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration, runoff,
and soil erosion processes.

FREQUENCY, or more specifically, the return period refers to how often rainfall
occurs at a particular amount or intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return
periods are referred to as 100 year-1 hour rainfall or 100 year-24 hour rainfall to define
the probability that a given amount will fall within a given time period.

SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall
amounts occur. The seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep
percolation are most likely to occur or if irrigation is needed. Since the seasonal
distribution of rainfall varies in different parts of the country, practices used or
recommended in one part of the country may not necessarily be appropriate in another.
For example, tillage practices to conserve moisture in Western Kansas are not likely
necessary in New York. Or applying anhydrous ammonia in the fall in the upper
Midwest may be appropriate, whereas following this same practice in the Northeast
often leads to substantial nitrate leaching and little fertility benefit to the next year's crop.

ARTIFICIAL STIMULATION OF PRECIPITATION

Due to the scarcity of water as a result increasing population and utilization, there is an
increasing need to increase rainfall through some artificial cloud modifications using freezing
nuclei.

1. Use of Dry Ice

Most clouds require larger droplet sizes to yield precipitation, One process make the
droplets larger involves the evaporation of small water droplets to ice crystals. To promote ice
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crystal growth, intensely cold dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) pellets are dropped from airplanes into
the clouds having near-freezing temperatures. Two effects should occur:

✓ Air should be cooled sufficiently so that ice crystal condensation should occur in the clouds
✓ Water vapor condensing onto ice crystals should release enough latent heat to cause
continued rising and adiabatic cooling of the air to promote further condensation and thus
keep the process going.

2. Use of silver iodide crystals

A more common procedure than cloud seeding with dry ice pellets has been cloud seeding
with minute silver iodide crystals. In this practice, silver iodide is either burned in generators at
the ground or carried aloft by convection or it is fired into the clouds from aircraft.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION IN PRECIPITATION

▪ Precipitation is heaviest near equator and decreases with increasing latitude;

▪ Precipitation tends to be heavier near coastlines, since main source of moisture for
precipitation is evaporation from oceans;
▪ Precipitation amount/frequency are generally greater on the windward side of mountain
barriers since lifting air masses accounts foremost all precipitation

TIME VARIATION IN PRECIPITATION

- Precipitation record may suggest and increasing or decreasing trend but usually tend to return
to mean, abnormally wet periods tend to balance dry periods.

PRECIPITATION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

To measure the amount of rainfall, a raingauge used by PAGASA, the 8-inch raingauge
and the tipping bucket rain gauge.
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1. 8-in Raingauge

An 8-inches raingauge, so called because the inside diameter of the receiver is exactly 8
inches is provided with a funnel that conducts rain into a cylindrical measuring tube. The volume
of the receiver is 10 times the volume of the measuring tube. Therefore, the actual depth of rainfall
is increased ten times on being collected in the smaller measuring tube.

To measure the amount of rainfall accumulated in the measuring tube, a thin measuring
stick with the magnified scale printed on its face is used. The precisely dimensioned measuring
tube has a capacity of only 2 inches (50.8 mm). Rainfall exceeding this amount spills into the
overflow can but can be easily measured by pouring into the measuring tube for total rainfall.
Used this way, the gauge has a total capacity of 20 inches.

2. Tipping bucket raingauge

Another type of rainfall recording instrument is the tipping-bucket raingauge. It is upright

cylinder that has a funnel-shaped receiver. The precipitation collected by the receiver empties
into one side of a “tipping bucket”, an inverted triangular contraption partitioned transversely at its
center, and is pivoted about a horizontal axis. Once it is filled with rain, it tips, spilling out the water
and placing the other half of the bucket under the funnel. The tipping activates a mercury switch
causing an electrical current to move the pen in the recorder. Each tipping is equal to one
millimeter of rainfall.
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BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

3.5 ESTIMATION OF MISSING RAINFALL DATA

Estimating missing data and of Adjustment of records

Complete measured precipitation data are important to many problems in hydrologic

analysis and design but there are missing values.

The causes of missing rainfall data are:

➢ The failure of the observer to make the necessary visit to the gage may result in
missing data.
➢ Vandalism of recording gages is another problem that results in incomplete data
records
➢ Instrument failure because of mechanical or electrical malfunctioning can result
in missing data.

Some of the methods of estimating missing rainfall values are:

1. Station-Average Method
2. Normal-Ratio Method
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3. Quadrant Method
4. Regression method

Station-Average Method
The station-average method for estimating missing data uses n gages from a region to
estimate the missing point rainfall, P, at another gage
Where • Pi is the catch at gage i.
• Equation is conceptually simple, but may not be accurate when the total annual
catch at any of the n regional gages differ from the annual catch at the point of
interest by more than 10%.

Example, consider the following data

Ten percent of the annual catch at gage X is 41 mm and the average annual catch at
each of the three regional gages is within + or - 41 mm.; therefore, the station-average
method can be used. The estimated catch at the gage with the missing monthly
precipitation total is
P̅ = 1/3(26 + 31 + 23) = 26.667mm
This method is often used in flat areas with very less rainfall variability
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Normal-Ratio Method

Where: wi = the weight for the rainfall depth Pi at gage i. The weight for station i is
computed by

Where •Ai = the average annual catch at gage i,

Ax = the average annual catch at station X,
n = the number of stations.

Note: When the average annual catches differ by more than l0%, the normal-ratio
method is preferable; such differences might occur in regions where there are large
differences in elevation (for example, regions where orographic effects are present) or
where average annual rainfall is low but has high annual variability.

Example To illustrate the normal-ratio method, consider the following data:

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Determine the monthly precipitation at gage X Gage Annual precipitation(mm) Monthly

precipitation (mm) A 410 24 B 370 23 C 460 31 X 400?
• The monthly precipitation for gage X is missing and can be estimated using the data from the
table
The steps are
I. Calculate ten percent of annual precipitation at gage X which is 40
II. Add and subtract 40 from the annual precipitation of gage X to determine the range which is
from 360mm to 440mm
III. Check whether all the annual precipitation of the stations are within the above range
IV. If at least one station is outside the rage, use normal ratio method. As indicated in the table
the annual precipitation of gage C is 460mm which is outside the range there fore we use normal
ratio method to determine the missing data at station X.
• This how the missing value at gage X is calculated

̅
P = wA PA + wB PB + w𝑐 PC
Ax Ax Ax
= PA + PB + P
nAA nAB nAc C

Ax PA PB PC
= ( + + )
n AA AB Ac
400 24 23 31
̅
P= ( + + )
3 410 370 460
̅
P = 25.8

Inverse distance method(U.S. weather Service method) The missing rainfall data of the station X
is computed by the following equation.
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Where
1 1
𝑊𝑖 = =
𝐷𝑖 2 𝑋𝑖 2 + 𝑌𝑖 2
𝑝𝑖 = the rainfall of the surrounding stations
(𝑥𝑖 ,𝑦𝑖 ) = the coordinate of each surrounding station
(0,0) = the coordinate of the station with missing data

Note This method considers the distance of the stations.

Example

In a river basin a station A was in operative during a storm, while stations B,C,D and E,
surrounding A were in operation, recording 74mm,88mm,71mm and 80mm of monthly rainfall.
The coordinates of the stations is given in the figure below. Estimate the missing monthly rainfall
of station A by the inverse distance method.
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REGRESSION method

For filling missing data Regression analysis is a procedure for fitting an equation to a set of
data. Specifically, given a set of measurements on two random variables, y and x, regression
provides a means for finding the values of the coefficients a and b for the straight line (y = a+
bx) that best fits the data.

The coefficients a and b can be found using least square method using the following two
equations simultaneously

na + b ∑ 𝑥 = ∑ y

𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 2 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦

Example:

The rainfall (RF) data of the table below are the annual rainfall (mm) and monthly rainfall (mm) of
a meteorological station from 1990-1995 E.C. Estimate the monthly rainfall value of the station
for the year 1996 E.C. using the regression method.
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Solution

• Develop an equation in the form of y= a + bx ,

That is monthly RF= a + b* annual RF
• The coefficients a and b can be found using the equations

na + b ∑ 𝑥 = ∑ y

𝑎 ∑ 𝑥 + 𝑏 ∑ 𝑥 2 = ∑ 𝑥𝑦
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Therefore, the equations become

6*a +b*6650=1210-----------------------(1)
a*6650 +b*7437500=1354500------------(2)
Solving the two equations simultaneously
a= -20 and b= 0.2 in which y= -20 +0.2x or
monthly rainfall = -20 + 0.2*annual rainfall
To estimate the monthly rainfall for the year 1996 , substitute the annual rainfall of the
year in to the equation and is estimated as monthly rainfall (mm) = -20 + 0.2*1300 mm
= 240mm

3.6 CONVERSION OF POINT RAINFALL TO AREAL RAINFALL

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Estimating Average Precipitation in a Watershed

Three Methods

1. Arithmetic Average Method

-Calculate the average of the precipitation records from all the rain gages in a watershed
(include any on the watershed boundary as well)

- Best to have the gages distributed throughout the watershed (unfortunately, not always
the case in real life)

- Use only the rain gages within and on the watershed boundary - not those outside the
boundary - to calculate the average

Example:

A1= 2.74

A2=3.31

A3=4.05

A4=4.65

A5=5.23

2. Thiessen Method
This method assumes that any point in the watershed receives the same amount of rainfall
as that measured at the nearest rain gauge station. Here, rainfall recorded at a gage can
be applied to any point at a distance half way to the next station in any direction

Advantage allow for the uneven distribution of rain gauge

Step
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1. Plot all gage locations on a map of the watershed 9can include gages outside of the
watershed if they are nearby)
2. Draw straight lines connecting the age sites
3. Draw perpendicular lines through the midpoint of each line. Now each gage is near the
center of a polygon whose size varies according to the spacing between gages.
4. Calculate area of each polygon
5. Calculate the percent of the total area in each polygon. Divide the area of each polygon
by the total area of the watershed and multiply 100
6. Each gage precipitation total is multiplied by its polygons percentage of area this gives
you the adjusted precipitation of each polygon
7. Sum the adjusted precipitation values for all the polygons to find the average rainfall in the
basin
-Method assumes that precipitation varies linearly between rain gage. This is not always.

Example:

P1 = 10 mm, A1 = 12 km 2

P2 = 20 mm, A2 = 15 km 2

P3 = 30 mm, A3 = 20 km 2

Average = A1P1 + A2P2 + A3P3

A total
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3. Isohyetal Method
-In greek, iso means equal and hyet means rain

- An isohyet is a line, on a rainfall map of the basin, joining places of equal

rainfall readings.

-An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall presents a more accurate picture of
the rainfall distribution over the basin.

-Average rainfall can be computed by the following expression.

Sample Problems:
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1. Compute the average rainfall for a given watershed by the Thiessen method from the
following data. How do the weighted average and the station average compare?
Rain Gauge Area(ha) Rainfall(mm)

A 14.0 58

B 4.5 41

C 5.3 51

D 4.9 43

2. Using Arithmetic Average Method, find average rainfall over a catchment. The rain gage
data is: 12.6, 18.8, 14.8, 10.4 and16.2 mm.

3. Example: Using Thiesen Polygon Method, find average rainfall over a catchment. The
data is:

Rain Gauge Station A B C D E

Polygon Area(km2) 40 45 38 30 43

Precipitation 30.8 33.4 34.6 32.6 24.6

4. Using Isohyetal Method, find average rainfall over a catchment.

Isohytes 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17

Area between 22 80 110 89 70

Isohytes

Average presipitation 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5

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5. The area shown in the figure is composed of a square plus an equilateral triangular plot
of side 10 km. The annual precipitations at the rain-gauge stations located at the
four corners and centre of the square plot and apex of the triangular plot are ndicated in
figure. Find the mean precipitation over the area by Thiessen polygon method, and
compare with the arithmetic mean.

6. Solve for the average annual rainfall in the figure.

1 II III IV V VI

410 900 2850 1750 720 550

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Seatwork
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DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

3.7 DOUBLE MASS ANALYSIS

Adjustment of rainfall records (gage consistency)

• A consistent record is one where the characteristics of the record have not
changed with time
• An inconsistent record may result from any one of a number of events
• Lack of consistence may be due to
➢ Unreported shifting the rain gauge (by as much as 8 km
aerially & 3m in elevation)
➢ Significant construction work might have changed the
surrounding
➢ change of observational procedure

Double-mass-curve analysis is the method that is used to check for an

inconsistency in a gaged record.
Double mass Analysis- The trend of the rainfall records at a station may slightly
change after some year due to change in environment (or exposure) of station either
due to coming of new building, fence planting of trees or cutting of forest nearby,
which affect the catch of gauge due to change in the wind pattern or exposure. Plot
cumulative annual (or seasonal ) rainfall against concurrent cumulative annual rainfall
for a group of surrounding stations for the number of years of records. From the plot,
the year in which a change in regime (or environment) has occurred is indicated by
the change in slope of the straight line plot. The rainfall records of the station x are
adjusted by multiplying the recorded values of rainfall by the ratio of slopes of the
straight lines before and after change in environment.

A double-mass curve is a graph of the cumulative catch at the rain gage of

interest versus the cumulative catch of one or more gages in the regions that
have been subjected to similar hydro meteorological occurrences and are
known to be consistent.
If a double- mass curve has a constant slope, the record is consistent.
If a double –mass curve has not a constant slope, the record is not consistent
and need to be adjusted.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

Steps to check and adjust the consistency of rainfall data of a station X

1. The doubtful station, say A, is marked and the group of stations surrounding it
are identified.
2. Determine the cumulative rainfall of the station A
3. Sum the data of the neighboring stations and determine the cumulative.
4. Plot the sum cumulative rainfall of stations with cumulative station A to determine
the double mass curve
5. If there is a changing slope in the double-mass curve, adjust it correct the data of
station A by the adjustment factor

Say the slopes of the two sections, S1, and S2, can be
comp

Adjustment of the initial data of a station

𝑆2/𝑆1 is the adjustment factor and multiplying each value in the
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

Y1series by the adjustment factor

Example: Adjustment of the Lower Section of a Double -Mass

Curve.
• In the table below annual rainfalls of gage E, F, G and H are given. Gage H was permanently
relocated after a period of 3 yr (at the end of 1981); thus adjust the recorded values from 1979
through 1981 of gage H using double mass curve assume the data for the other gages are
consistent.
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

Solution

Estimate of missing data and adjustment of records

For frequency analysis of rainfall data, a sufficiently long record is required. It may so
happen that a particular rain gauge is not operative for part of month or so (since it is broken or
some other reason), when it becomes necessary to supplement the missing record by one of the
following methods
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

Plot

Example Adjustment of the Upper Section of a Double-Mass Curve

• Data for gages A, B, and C and D are given the table below. Check the consistence of
data for gage D and adjust it using double-mass curve method.

Solution
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

Plot
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE COURSE
BSCE HYDR 2
PROGRAM: NO.:
COURSE
SPECIALIZATION: Hydrology
TITLE:
TIME
YEAR LEVEL: 3rd Year WK NO. 2-5 IM NO. 2
FRAME:

References:
Chow, V., Maidment, D.R., and Mays, L.W, (1988). Applied Hydrology. McGraw-Hill
International Edition