EUCLIDEAN PLANE GEOMETRY AN INTRODUCTORY COURSE Alemayehu Haile Department of Mathematics Faculty of Science Addis Ababa UniversityPreface TMs te a cest-matertai preparee for the course Math 113, an introductory course Yn Guclidesa “lane Guomat-y, This course was initiated by the Degartmen: * meet a partivviar need chat arose with regard to the preparatton of secondary School mathematics teachers, As is known Euclidean Plane Geometry eccupies an important part of the secondary schoct mathematics curriculum. It is also well known that it is not being ef-ectively taught, 1f taugnt at all, for many years now 15 of the nation. one th'ng that can be done to remedy this fon Gs te strengchen and faporve the education of the future teachers Hy will be teaching. To this situa thenselves in the kind of geomatry they a clidean Plane Geonetry, with balanced effect a college-ievel course in emphases on both the axiomatic basis and the content matter of the subject was initia It 48 deiieved that provicing an apsortunity tc the future geometry Snacher to acquire a certain decree of understanding and apprectation of as ar aviomatic logical structure and at the same tine attain a cercoin level of comesency of working with the fmportant facts © the subject wil? greatly enhance his abilfty of teaching geometry effectively. fcean Seometry Chapter one deais, at an elementary level, with mathematical logical structures in ceneral. The concepts involved are illustrated by the use of easy examples especially drawn from finite projective geometry. Chapter two presents the axioms of Euclidean Geometry as modified ov 0, Hilbert and their immediate important consequences, including the basic constructions and definitions of units of measurenent for iength and angie. The remaining three chapters deal with the most important facts of geonetry taught at schecis witn sufficient stress on both "proofs of theorems” and mastery of content-matter of the suoject. Accordingly triangles are dealt in chapter three, quadrilaterais and ocher polygons in chapter four and circles in chapter five.-i- Sufficient number of problems are given in at least one set of exercises at the end of almost of every section These exercises include different type of geometric prablems such as proving propositions, constructions and calculations. The student is strongly recommended to work as many of these problems as possible to strengthen his understanding, appreciation and mastery -eqz0f the course. The text-material has already been used successfully numerous times by ayself and once by Ato Tadesse Dilbo of Mathenatics Department of AAU. I would like to take this opportunity to thank him for all the constructive criticisms and comments he has made with regard to the improvement of the text. I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Dean Besrat Dilnessahu tho deligently read the manuscripts as they were being prepared and made many valuabTe contributions to their improvement. A also thank Ato Girma Dagne, of the Physics Department, for the excellent job of the drawing of all the figures in the original text. I also gratefully aknowledge the admirable typing of the text done: by W/O Merafe Seyoum of the original text. This is a revised edition in which different types of mistakes are corrected and various improvements have been incorporated. W/O Azeb Belay, of Mathematics Department, deserves my heart-felt appreciation for the excellent typing and drawings of all the figures in the revised edition.CONTENTS Chapter 1°) AXIOMATIC STRUCTURE Tl) Preliminaries 1.2 An Example of an Axiomatic Structure Exercises 1.2 1.3 Axioms of Finite Projective Geonetries Exercises 1.3 Chapter 2 THE AXIOMS OF EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY 2.1 Axtoas of Connections (or incidence) Exercises 2.1 2.2 Axioms of order Exercises 2.2 2.3 Axioms of Parallels (Euclid's Axiom) Exercises 2.3 2,4 Axioms of Congruence Exercises 2.4 2.5 Axioms of Continuity and Completeness Exercises 2.5 2.6 Some Basic Constructions Exercises 2.6 Chapter 3 TRIANGLES 3,1 General Remarks Exercises 3.1 3.2 _; Congruency of Triangles Exercises 3.2.1 Exercises 3.2.2 Exercises 3.2.3 Exercises 3.2.4 3.3 Inequalities Exercises 3.3 3.4 Concurrency of Lines Exercises 3.4 3.5 Similarity Exercises 3.5 - iti - waae 12 13 14 18 27 28 30 31 50 56 59 68 68 69 n n 16 78 83 85 86 a1 9 97 98 106-ive 3.6 _/Right Trtangtes Exercises 3.6 Chapter 4 QUADRILATERAL S AND OTHER POLYGONS 4.1 Generat remarks on Polygons Exercises 4.1 4.2 Quadri laterals Exercises 4.2 4.3. Areas of Polygons Exercises 4.3 apter 5 CIRCLES 5.1 Definitions and Theorems on Circles Exercises 5.1 5.2 More Constructions; Regular Polygons and Circles Exercises 5.2 5.3 Length Measure of Arcs and Area Measure of Circles Exercises 5.3 Prences 106 109 111 ul 17 1g 121 123 131 150 163 163 165 178CHAPTER 1 \ ne AKLOMATIC_ STRUCTURE The first chapter of this course deals with the essentials of a mathe- matical deductive system. ‘That 1s to say with the discussion of an axtonatic structure where, starting with: 4) some undefined concepts (term); and ») unoroved assumptions (axtoms) tt is required that: _ hs every other concepts in the system be uwmbigously defined and 2. every other proposition in the system be logically proved using: . a) some undefined concept orb) some unproved assumpticr s or ¢) some previcusly* defined concepts or 4) some previousty* proved propositions. We shall now consider three questions that arise tn the preceeding characterization of an exiomatic structure. These are: 1, Why should some concepts be jeft undefined in the structure? 2, Why should some propositions be Teft unproved, or accepted to be true in the system without being proved? 3. What does "proving a proposition" in such a structure mean? The reasons for leaving some concepts (elements or terms) undefined in the system would be evident if we take the trouble of picking up any dictionary and study the nature of some definitions. He find that some "Te vord “previously” in (c) and (4) means previous: to the present definition or proof of & theoren in the whole presentation of the axiomatic structure.other term is always used to define a given term, and in turn possibly a third term is used to define the seccnd term and so on, The point being after a finite number of such steps, we always find the original term, whose definition we were looking for, being used again. Thus the Process completes a closed [Link] a circle. Now if we happened fot to know any one of the terms used in this chain it is evident that we ere not any better enlighted about the meaning of the origina! term. But this kind of circular definition would not be acceptable in a logical structure. If we reject circular definitions and still try to define every concept in the system, the only other alternative we have is to use some words for whose definition no other word exist. This again would not be acceptable as every concept, term or word used in the system should be meaningful. Accordingiy it is found necessary to leave some concepts undefined in an axiomatic structure. To answer the second question raised, let us consider what we shall again meet if we try to prove every possible assertion in a logical system. We shail again meet two eventualities: : i} To prove sone assertion designated Asser. No. 1 we have to use some other assertion designated say Asser. No. 2. But Asser. No. 2 has also to be proved, using another Assertion No. 3. etc. Thus having an endless regression as follows: Asser. No. 1 is true if Asser. No. 2 is true Asser. No. 2 is true if Asser. No. 3 is true Asser. No. 3 is true if Asser. No. 4 is true and so ons... But this is evidently impossible, or else; ii) We will have something as follows: Asser. No. 1 is true if [Link]. 2 is true Asser. No. 2 is true ‘f [Link]. 3 is true Asser. No. 3 is true if Asser. No. 1 is trueie Gut this 1s a circular argument and again this would not Togically be acceptable. However the undefined concepts (elements or terms) of the system are given meanings in,the system by the use of the unproved assertion of the system. That is the unproved assumptions of the structure are the governing properties of the system expressing the existence of the undefined elements and the basic relations among the undefined elements using some undefined terms. Hence, even though an axiomatic system starts with some undefined elements and terms, these same are given meanings stated or expressed by the unproved assumptions of the structure. Moreover they are meaningful in the system only in the sense characterized by the unproved assump- . tions of the structure. «% at After the basis of the axiomatic structre has been laid as indicated in the preceeding paragraphs, then it should be possible:~ 1. To define every other concept in the system without any ambiguity. 2, To demonstrate the validity or the non-validity of any assertion in the system by'using the laws of logic. Now to turn to the third question ratsed earlier, we shall deal with what “proving a proposition" mean. A proposition, in an axiomatic structure, usually called a theorem, has essentially the form “if... then... The if-part is called the hypothesis of the theorem and the then-part is called the conclusion of the theorem. Proving a theorem consists then using the hypothesis of the theorem to construct a chain of reason- ing consisting of a finite nunber of steps, where each step 1s justified by the laws of logic using either: a) some undefined concepts or b) some axiom or c) some previously defined term or d) some previously proved theoremede and where the chain of reasoning culminates in the conclusion of the ‘ theorem. . Finally we should always remember that in a mathematical deductive system, it is not being asserted that either the axioms’ or the theorems are on their own true, what 1s being asserted or claimed is that the axions of the system imply directly or after a chain of a finite number of steps of reasoning every valid theorem in the system. An exemple of an axiomatic structure Before we present the undefined concepts and the axioms of Euclidean Geometry, we shall illustrate the main ideas of the preceeding section by examples discussed in this and the following section. Suppose a system consists of two kinds of objects. Let P be the set of the first kind of objects in the system and L be the set of the second kind of objects in the system. And suppose there 1s an undefined relation denoted by "*" which either does or does not exist between a given element x of P and a given element y of L. . We assume that this system 1s governed by the following axioms: Al For any two” elements x, and Xp of P, there fs at least one element in L which is *-related to both 4 and Xe . AZ For any two elements x, and x of P, there 1s at most one element in L which is *-related to both x, and Xp. 43 For any two elements y, and y of L, there is at least one element in P which is *-related to both y, and yp. '4 For any element y of L, there are at least three elements in P | which are *-related to y. 5 For any element y of L, there is at least one element in.P, which 1s not *-related to y. i There exist at least one element y in L. at when ve speak of two, three, four, ect. objects ve mean two, three, four, etc. P objects of the system.cc eseieeeeeieheeieiimeins n *y) ’ =P ER ASSESSES «5 Let us now consider the following real situation (model). Suppose seven ping-pong players from Dire Dawa are to have a tournament of Single match games with seven players from Jima. - Let the players sey Dy and those from Jimna from Dire Dawa be designated by D,, Dy by dye dzreee Ope They were matched for the tournament according to the following schedule. | D1} 2] 5] Pq afm fm fm | dy | M M | M | 3) M ar Y ayy fs M " I Js| | M 4 M Js u|M ™ 4 " wim | If the J's are the elements of set P and the D's are the elements of the set L of the system and the relation "*" is interpreted to mean "matched against then it can easily be seen that Model I satif- ies the set of axioms. Note that J; is matched against D, is indicated in the model by writing M in the square conmon to the ith row and jth colum of the schedule. For example, Al says that if J; and J; are any two players from Jinma, then there is at least one player D from Dire Dawa who is matched against both of them. A check of the schedule shows this to be true. Aa, AS and AG are easily checked to be satisfied.” AZ says for any two players from Jinma, there is no more than one player from Dire Dawa who 4s matched against both of them. For example it is only Dy who is matched against both J, and Jg. A3 can similarly shown to be satisfied.| -~6- The following is another mode1 which can be shown to be satisfied by the same set of axioms. Let the set P consists of the seven points Py, Po, «++» Py shown in Model 2 and let the set L consists P,P, and the of the six seaments P\Fys FP ys FiFgs PyPge PoPqs Pal Circle PaPsPg- If the relation "*" is interepreted to mean either “an element of P is on an element of L* or “an eiement of L contains an element of P" then it can easily be checked that each of the axioms are satisfied. 1, Consider the system where the elements of set P are the following seven triples of the form x = (u,v,W), x, * (10,0) Xp = (0,1,0) x3 = (0,0,1) xq * (0.141) X= (1,051) Xg = (1,1,0) x = (411)ae and were the elenents of L are the sets of x's which satisfy the respective equations given below: se cer ure ve9 sorweO, vtws0 utn=0 utyved utvetw=0 where a1] calculations are to be carried out model 2. List the elements of P which belong to each element of L. ‘List the elements of L which is satisfied by each element of P. Verify that in this model Axioms Al to AG are satisfied. + A set of axioms is said to be consistent if and only if there is fo contradicitions among the axioms or the theorems which can be derived from them. Show that the following set of statements is inconsistent. “ a) The population of Sebeta consists exclusively of young married couples and their children. b) There are more adults than children in Sebeta. ¢) Every boy in Sebeta has a sister. d) There are more boys than girls in Sebeta. e) There are no childless couples in Sebeta. . Hint: first check teo by two, that fs check 1f (a) 4s consistent with (b) and then with (c) etc. and then ff (b) 1s, consistent with (c) etc. and so on.- Next check three by three, that is if (a), (b) and (c) are consistent and so cn. Next check four by four. This way you will find the maximum rumber of consistent statements. If this number is less ther 5 then ail the given five statements are inconsistent. : ° - What can you say to the remaining four statements if any ane of the five statements in problem 2 is omitted?-8- . 4. A system consists of a set of elements, S, and a relation, 'R which either does or does not hold between any pair of élements in S, taken in a given order. If an element a bears the relation R to an element b, we write aR b. The structure of the system is described by the following axioms: ‘ Al If a and b are distinct elements of S, then either a'R b or bRa (but not both). . . : A If a and b are elements of $ and if a R b, then a and b are distinct A3 If a,b and c are elements of S and if aR band 7 R c fhen are, Aa S contains exactly four elements. Construct a real situation model which satisfies each of these axioms. A system consists of two types of elements. Let X be the set of one of the'two types of elements and Y be the set of the other type of elements. There also exists a relation called “** which either does or does not exist between a given element of X and 4 given - element of Y. The structure of the system {s defined by the follow= ing axions : . sy Al For any element x of X, there are exactly four elemients: of ¥ which are *-relafed to x. AZ" For any’ element y of Y, there are exactly two elenents of x which are *-related to Y. 43” For any two elements xX, and x» of X, there is exactly 0 one element of Y which is *-related to both x and Xp M4 X contains at least one element. Construct a model ({.e., real situation) which satisfies this set of axioms.ade 1.3 Axioms of Finite Projective Geometries The set of axioms considered earlier stated in the appropriate geometric terms are actually the basis for the study of finite projective geometries Even though these are not, in a sense, the subject matter of this course, we are looking at them as examples of axiomatic structures. If the axioms presented in section 1-2 are restated using “points” as the elements of set P and "lines" as the elements of set L, there being the undefined elements of the system and using "Ties on", “passes through" and “contains” as equivalent terms for the undefined relation "*" we get the following. Al If Py and P are any two points, there is at least one Tine contain- fng both P, and Pp. . A2 If P) and Py are any two points, there is at most one line contain- “ing both Py and P). Aa If 4 and , are any two lines, there is at least one point which Ves on both £, and £5. Aa Every line contains at least three points. AS If Ris a line, there is at least one point which does not. Jie on 2, A6 There exists at least on line. Note that except A3 every axiom stated is a familiar fact from our school geometry. On the other hand A3 actually contradicts one of the important axtons we learned then, namely the existence of parallel lines in the plane. Note also that the terms "point" and "line" used in the axioms are undefined terms in the system. That is they are not supposed to have meanings except those given to them by the axtoms of the system. In other words a point is any object that has the properties which the axfoms specify a point to have and similarly a line is any object that has the properties which the axions specify a line to have. Moreover even though their conventional representations, namely "dot" for “point-10- . \) and “supposedely indefinitely thin and long marks" for “line” are used in our discussions, these are done without any implication of . a “point 1s a dot” and "a line 4s an indefinitely long and thin mark". We shall now discuss several consequences of these axioms as illustrat- fons of how proving in an axiomatic structure is carried. Theoren 1.8.1 There exists in the system at least one point. Proof. By A6 there exists at least one line in the system. Then, Since by A4 every line in the system contains at least three point it follows then that there exists at least one point in the system. Theorem 1.3.2 If & andi> are any two lines, there fs at most one Point which lies on both 2, and 25. Proof. The proof will be by producing a contradiction. Suppose then there are more than one point, say two points P; and Pp, which Ite ‘on both y and f. But AZ states that if Py and Py are two points, there is at most one line containing both Py and Poe Hence the Supposition made is in contradiction with one of the governing axioms of the system. Hence it cannot be true fn the system. Then it follows that 1f the supposition is not true in the system, then its negation namely "there is not more than one point which lie on £, and t»" 1s true. This completes the proof. Theorem 1.3.3 Two points determine exactly one Tine. Proof. Suppose P) and P> are any two points. Then by AY there exists at Teast one line that contain both Py and Py and then by A2 there can at most be one line which contains both points A and Po. Hence the theorem {s true.CO SI oll , Theorem 1.3.4 Two lines have exactly one point in common. Proof. Given any two lines, say 2, and 2p by'A3, there is at least one Point which Ties on both of them, and then by theorem 1.3.2 there can at most he one noint which I¥es on both 2; and fp- Hence the theorem follows. Theorem 1.3.5 If P is any point, there is at least one line which does not pass through P, Proof. By AG there exists at least one line, say£, in the system. If P is not on & then the proof is complete. Suppose then P lies on 2. By Ad, there exists at least a point P' different from P and which lies on 2 and by AS there exists at least a point P" which does not I1e on 2. Now by theorem 1.3. P* and P" determine a unique line, say t'. Since P" 4s not on , 2and tare twe distinct lines, and hence by theorem 1.3.4, have exactly one point in common. Since this point is P’, it follows that P is not on 2! and hence ¢ is a line which does not pass through P. Theovem 1.3.6 Every point lies on at least three lines. Proof. Let P be any point in the system. By theorem 1.3.5, there exists a line, say £, which does not pass through P and by A4 there exist at least three noints. say Ps Pos and Py which | He on £. By theorem 1.3.3 each of the potnts P), Py and Py determine a unique line with P, Moreover these three lines are all distinct, for otherwise, if any two of them are the same, then 1t means that this sane line has two distinct point in common with £. But this is impossible by theorem 1.3.4, Hence there are at Teast three distinct lines passing through any point in the system.dtnars EXERCISES 1.3 ny a Sitherge ee og ao In problems 1,2,3,4 and 5 assume that S fs a’ system "of points’ and lines Se te ds - rere z 1 sh dn t's bab ae in which the six axtoms discussed 1a this’ section ord thie. | | . sd. SS Oren aie et dace de meg stds Show that {f there exists a 1ineTwhizh Ontain3"Bx¥ety four points 1 ae ‘then every fae in the seen sontatns exactly, four. points. Show that if there exists one Vine which contains exactly four points, then exactly four lines pass through every point. (can use the 5 etefes grody @A ye eer result of problem 1 if necessay) 78 2fz'xs grainy be eet Nae + at 9 i Show that 1f there éxiste’Gne hich, conga'ns giactly four points, then the Systeii Contains actly "13 (42 4 1) points. (can use the result Gf problems T and 2 a¥ nécesseyy 2 7 2: ed wot kh tT 25nd Noite “FT Intog & Show that iF there exists one. Line which contains exactly 4 points, then the system contains exactly 13 Lines. ‘can use the results of problems’ 1,2 and 3 Af necessary) on ony yfsnexe avsd Can you generatize the results of Problems T,2,3'and 4" if four, in each one of them, is changed to any positive inteyér n? OF course tf you Succeed to do so you will not Prove that. there exists a finite projective geonetry for any given’ positive inteyer i; What you will Succeed doing in each case is that if the hypothesis js true then the conclusion can be proved to be true ,in, the, system: governed by the six axioms, sro tas otf om 6 Vctaretey cateatt Ths g43