Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential

Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits

Chapter 1: Electric Potential

Summary
The concepts of work, potential energy, and energy conservation that were used in our study of mechanics can
similarly be applied in our analysis of electrical interactions. A charged particle moving in an electric field
experiences a force. The force exerted by the field can do work on the particle. This work can be expressed in
terms of the particle’s electric potential energy. Recall from our study of mechanics that potential energy is the
energy associated with an object’s position or configuration. Gravitational potential energy depends on the
object’s position in a gravitational field while elastic potential energy depends on the degree of compression or
expansion of a spring-like object. Electric potential energy, on the other hand, depends on the position of the
charged particle in an electric field. In our study of electric interactions, we describe this potential energy on a
“per unit charge” basis using the concept of electric potential.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Determine the electric potential energy associated with a collection of point charges
• Calculate the electric potential produced by a collection of point charges
Concepts and Equations
Terms Description
Electric Potential Energy Recall that the work done by a conservative force 𝐹⃗ in
moving a particle from point 𝑎 to point 𝑏 can be
expressed in terms of a potential energy 𝑈,

𝑏
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝑈𝑎 − 𝑈𝑏 = −(𝑈𝑏 − 𝑈𝑎 ) = −∆𝑈,
𝑎

where 𝑑𝑙⃗ is an infinitesimal displacement along the

particle’s path.
Electric Potential Energy of Two Point Charges Consider the system of two point charges shown.

Fig. 7.1.1

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential

The two charges have the same sign (𝑞𝑞0 > 0). The force
exerted by 𝑞 on 𝑞0 is given by Coulomb’s law,

1 𝑞𝑞0
𝐹𝑟 = .
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

𝐹𝑟 is repulsive and is positive along the radial direction.

[Note: If these charges have opposite signs, 𝑞𝑞0 < 0; 𝐹𝑟
is attractive and is negative along the radial direction.]

The work done by 𝐹𝑟 in moving 𝑞0 from point 𝑎 to point

𝑏 (along the radial direction) is
𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏
1 𝑞𝑞0
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑎 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2

𝑞𝑞0 1 1
=− ( − ).
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑎

Since electric force is conservative,

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∆𝑈 = −(𝑈𝑏 − 𝑈𝑎 ).
𝑞𝑞0 1
𝑈𝑎 = is the potential energy when 𝑞 and 𝑞0 are
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑎
𝑞𝑞0 1
separated by a distance 𝑟𝑎 and 𝑈𝑏 = is the
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑏
potential energy when 𝑞 and 𝑞0 are separated by a
distance 𝑟𝑏 . Thus, for any distance 𝑟 separating the two
charges 𝑞 and 𝑞0 , the electric potential energy is

𝑞𝑞0 1
𝑈= .
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Electric Potential Energy of a Collection of Point

Charges

Fig. 7.1.2

𝑞0 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞0 𝑞𝑖
𝑈= ( + + + ⋯) = ∑ .
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential

Electric Potential Energy

in a Uniform Electric Field

Fig. 7.1.3

In a uniform electric field 𝐸⃗⃗, a positive test charge 𝑞0

experiences force 𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸. For the system shown, the
force exerted by the field on the charge is downward. The
work done by the field in moving the charge from the
positive plate to the negative plate is
𝑦𝑏 𝑦𝑏 𝑦𝑏
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑦⃗ = ∫ 𝑞0 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑦⃗ = 𝑞0 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦𝑎 𝑦𝑎 𝑦𝑎

= 𝑞0 𝐸(𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 ) = 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑.

Recall that 𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = −∆𝑈. Hence, when the positive

charge moves in the direction of the electric field, the
field does positive work and the electric potential energy
decreases. When the positive charge moves in the
direction opposite of 𝐸⃗⃗, the field does negative work and
the electric potential energy increases.
Electric Potential Electric potential, or simply potential, is potential energy
per unit charge. At any point in an electric field, the
potential 𝑉 is defined as the potential energy 𝑈 per unit
charge associated with a test charge 𝑞𝑜 at that point,

𝑈
𝑉= .
𝑞𝑜

Since charge and potential energy are scalars, potential is

also a scalar quantity.

SI Unit: V, volt [1 V = 1 N ⋅ m/C or 1 J/C]

Potential due to a point charge

𝑈 𝑞 1
𝑉= =
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Potential due to a collection of charges

𝑈 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 1 𝑞𝑖
𝑉= = ( + + + ⋯) = ∑
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential

Potential due to a continuous charge distribution

𝑈 1 𝑑𝑞
𝑉= = ∫
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟

Electric Potential Difference The potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 between two points, say 𝑎
and 𝑏, is equal to the work done by an electric force when
a unit of charge moves from 𝑎 to 𝑏,

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 −Δ𝑈
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = =
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜

The electric potential difference is commonly referred to

as voltage.
Calculating Potential from Electric Field
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 1 𝑏 𝑏
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜 𝑎 𝑎

For the parallel plates shown in Fig. 7.1.3,

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 𝑞0 𝐸𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = = = 𝐸𝑑.
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜

Calculation Electric Field from Potential

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝐸⃗⃗ = − (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
The electric field has components 𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 =− ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑉
and 𝐸𝑧 = − .
𝑑𝑧

Electron Volts An electron volt is a unit or quantity of energy gained by

a charge 𝑞 with magnitude 𝑒 = 1.602 × 10−19 C when
the electric potential increases by 1 volt.

eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J

Conceptual Questions
1. How will a positive charge move along a uniform field, from high potential to low potential, or from low
potential to high potential?
2. Say a positive charge is moving along the direction of a uniform field. What happens to its electric potential
energy as it moves further? Is it increasing or decreasing?
3. If you place a negative test charge along a uniform field, where will it tend to go, along the field or against
it? With this, can you say that the charge will lose or gain electric potential energy? Why so?
4. Will the negative charge in #3 move from high potential to low potential? Why so?

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential

Problems
1. Three charges, 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = +𝑒, and 𝑞3 = −𝑒, are located on a plane with coordinates (0, a), (a, 0), and (0, 0)
respectively. A test charge 𝑞𝑜 = −𝑒 is placed at (a, a). (a) What is the electric potential energy of this system
of charges? What is the electric potential at the location of the test charge?
Solution: The four charges are on the corners of a square.

Fig. 7.1.4

(a)
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑜 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 −𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑒 −𝑒 2 2 1
𝑈= ∑ = ( + + )= ( + + )= ( − )
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝑖 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎 𝑎 √2𝑎 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎 √2𝑎
𝑖

−𝑒 2 2√2 1 −𝑒 2 1 √2
= ( − )= (2 − ).
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 √2𝑎 √2𝑎 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎 2

(b)

−𝑒 2 1 √2
(2 − )
𝑈 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎 2 𝑒 1 √2
𝑉= = = (2 − ).
𝑞𝑜 −𝑒 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎 2

2. What if the test charge in #1 was instead located infinitely far from the other charges? What would be the
potential at the location of the test charge?
Solution: In this case, 𝑎 → ∞. Hence,

𝑒 1 √2
𝑉∞ = lim 𝑉 = lim (2 − ) = 0.
𝑎→∞ 𝑎→∞ 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎 2

3. You are tasked to design a linear accelerator that produces a uniform electric field of 1.0 × 106 N/C going
from 𝑎 = 0 m to 𝑏 = 1.5 m for research purposes. (a) What would be the potential of a proton at 𝑏 if it moved

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential

straight across the accelerator from 𝑎? (b) How many 1.5-volt AAA batteries would you need to supply the
accelerator for the proton to linearly move from 𝑎 to 𝑏?
Solution: The test charge is a proton, which has charge 𝑞0 = +𝑒 = 1.602 × 10−19 C.
(a) The work done by the field in in moving the proton from points charge from 𝑎 = 0 m to 𝑏 = 1.5 m (along
the direction of the uniform electric field 𝐸 = 1.0 × 106 N/C) is
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∫ +𝑒𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝑒𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑒𝐸(𝑏 − 𝑎) = −𝑒𝐸(𝑎 − 𝑏).
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

The potential difference between 𝑎 and 𝑏 is

𝑊𝑎→𝑏 −𝑒𝐸(𝑎 − 𝑏)
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = = = −𝐸𝑎 + 𝐸𝑏.
𝑞0 +𝑒
N N
This means that 𝑉𝑎 = −𝐸𝑎 = − (1.0 × 106 ) (0 m) = 0 and 𝑉𝑏 = −𝐸𝑏 = − (1.0 × 106 ) (1.5 m) =
C C
−1.5 × 106 V or −1.5 MV.
N
(b) The potential difference is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 0 + (1.0 × 106 ) (1.5 m) = 1.5 × 106 V or 1.5 MV. This is equivalent
C
to one million 1.5-V AAA batteries connected in series.

Student Exercises
1. (Young, et. al., Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics, 12th Ed.) A point charge 𝑞1 is held stationary at the
origin. A second charge 𝑞2 is placed at point 𝑎, and the electric potential energy of the pair of charges is
+5.4 × 10−8 J. When the second charge is moved to point 𝑏, the electric force on the charge does
−1.9 × 10−8 J of work. What is the electric potential energy of the pair of charges when the second charge is
at point 𝑏?
2. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) Show that units of V/m and N/C for electric field strength are
indeed equivalent.
3. (Young, et. al., Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics, 12th Ed.) A charge of 28.0 nC is placed in a uniform
electric field that is directed vertically upward and has a magnitude of 4.00 × 104 V/m. What work is done by
the electric force when the charge moves (1) 0.450 m to the right; (b) 0.670 m upward; (c) 2.60 m at an angle
of 45.0 degrees downward from the horizontal?

References
• Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics, 12th Ed., Global Edition. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education
Limited, 2015.
• OpenStax College. University Physics, 3 Vols.. OpenStax, 2018.
• Serway, Raymond A and John W Jewett Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th Ed. Belmont,
CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole, 2004.
• Young, Hugh D, Roger A Freedman and Albert Lewis Ford. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics
with Modern Physics, 13th Ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc., 2012

Supplementary Materials
Review the following sections of OpenStax College University Physics Vol. 2:
7.1 Electric Potential Energy

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Answers to Conceptual Questions
1. A positive charge moves from a high potential to low potential along a uniform field. Referring to Figure 7.1.3, the test charge is
repelled by the positively charged plate (of high potential) and is attracted to the negatively charged one (of low potential).
2. A positive charge’s potential energy will decrease if it moves along the field’s direction and will increase if it moves against the field.
The charge’s potential energy increases as it moves against the field. Just like when a projectile is on its way up, it moves against the
gravitational field (which is downwards) and its potential energy increases.
3. The negative charge, say an electron, will move opposite the direction of the field. Its electric potential energy will increase.
4. The negative charge is repelled by the negatively charged plate (of low potential) and is attracted to the positively charged one (of
high potential). This, it will not move from high to low potential.
Electric potential at a point in space [Link]
Intro to electric potential [Link]
Electric potential energy of charges [Link]
Watch Electric potential energy [Link]
7.5 Equipotential Surfaces and Conductors
7.4 Determining Field from Potential
7.3 Calculations of Electric Potential
7.2 Electric Potential and Potential Difference
Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 1: Electric Potential
 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics

Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics

Summary
Capacitors are devices that store electric potential energy and electric charge. These are the commonly black or
brown cylindrical components you see in your appliances, even inside a mouse (not the living one), when
screwed opened for repair. Learning how these devices operate is a baseline for those who will be in electronics
or any related work in the future. Perhaps the appreciation of how computers, as big as two-story buildings,
used to fly rockets in space in the early 50’s or 60’s, were mainly consisted of big capacitors but are now scaled
down to a size that fits your hand is motivation enough to learn the operating principles of a capacitor. In this
chapter, we will study the fundamental properties of capacitors and how energy is stored involving these
devices.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Determine the capacitance of a capacitor or a network of capacitors
• Quantify the amount of energy is stored in a capacitor
• Discuss how energy storage is affected by the presence of a dielectric

Concepts and Equations

Terms Description
Capacitor A capacitor is a device made of two conductors that are
separated by an insulating material (or vacuum). It is used
to store electrical energy and electric charge.

When a capacitor has charge 𝑄, it means that one

conductor has charge +𝑄 while the other conductor has
charge −𝑄. Even when charged, the net charge on the
capacitor is zero.

The conductor with charge +𝑄 has a higher potential and

the conductor with charge −𝑄 has a lower potential.
Capacitance Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of
charge 𝑄 on each conductor and the potential difference
𝑉𝑎𝑏 between the conductors,
𝑄
𝐶= .
𝑉𝑎𝑏

SI unit: F, farad [1 𝐹 = 1 𝐶/𝑉]

Parallel-plate Capacitor By fixing two parallel plates of area 𝐴 at a distance 𝑑 and
ensuring they will not touch each other, you can already
make a parallel-plate capacitor. The magnitude of charge
on each plate is 𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴, 𝜎 is the magnitude of the surface
charge density on each plate and 𝐴 is the area of each
plate. Using Gauss’ law, it is easy to show that the electric
field between the plates has magnitude

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics

𝜎 𝑄
𝐸= = .
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴

The field between is uniform. So, the potential difference

between the plates is

𝜎 𝑄𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑑= ,
𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐴

where 𝑑 is the distance between the plates. The

capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor in vacuum is

𝑄 𝑄 𝐴
𝐶= = = 𝜖0 .
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑄𝑑 𝑑
𝜖0 𝐴

Fig. 7.2.1

Capacitors in Series

Fig. 7.2.2

The capacitors have the same charge 𝑄.

The potential differences across the capacitors add up,
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 .
The equivalent capacitance is less than the individual
capacitances,
1 1 1
= + .
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics

Capacitors in Parallel

Fig. 7.2.3

The capacitors have the same potential 𝑉.

The charge on each capacitor depends on the capacitance,
𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉 and 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉.
The equivalent capacitance is the sum of the individual
capacitances, 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 .
Energy stored in a Capacitor The potential energy 𝑈 stored in a capacitor is

𝑄2 1 1
𝑈= = 𝐶𝑉𝑎𝑏 2 = 𝑄𝑉𝑎𝑏 .
2𝐶 2 2

The amount of energy stored in the empty space between

the conductors per unit volume is

1
energy density = 𝑢 = 𝜖 𝐸2.
2 0

Dielectrics A dielectric is a non-conducting material placed between

the two conductors of a capacitor. The dielectric modifies
the electric field between the conductors. This is
manifested through the change in permittivity 𝜖,

𝜖 = 𝜅𝜖𝑜 .

𝜅 is called the dielectric constant. It is a real, positive

number. So, permittivity 𝜖 has the same unit as the
vacuum permittivity 𝜖𝑜 .

The dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of the

capacitance 𝐶 with the dielectric and the original
capacitance 𝐶0 (in vacuum),
𝐶
𝜅= .
𝐶0

Conceptual Questions
1. What is the net charge of a charged capacitor?
2. What happens to the electric field across a charged capacitor if you use the energy stored in it?
3. In a parallel-plate capacitor, what happens to the electric field between the capacitor if the voltage is increased
twice? What happens to its capacitance?
4. Give three material properties or quantities that affect the capacitance.

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics

Problems
1. Consider two ideal parallel plate capacitors. The plates are separated by an empty space (or vacuum). The
plates of one capacitor are separated by 𝑑1 while the plates of the other capacitor are separated by 𝑑2 = 2𝑑1. If
both capacitors’ plates have the same surface area, how do the values of their capacitance compare?
Solution: The first capacitor has capacitance
𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝜖0 .
𝑑1
The second capacitor has capacitance
𝐴 𝐴
𝐶2 = 𝜖0 = 𝜖0 = 2𝐶1 .
𝑑2 2𝑑1

2. A solid cylinder of radius 𝑎 is coaxial with a hollow one with radius 𝑏. They consist a cylindrical capacitor
and they are separated by vacuum. The length 𝐿 of the cylinders is far
bigger than their radii. What is the device’s capacitance? The cylinders
have charge density 𝜆. Also, the hollow cylinder’s thickness is negligibly
small.
Solution: The electric field in the space between the cylinders is
𝜆
𝐸= .
2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
The potential difference between the cylinders is
𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏
𝜆 𝜆 1 𝜆 𝜆 𝑏
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = (ln 𝑏 − ln 𝑎) = ln ( ).
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑎 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟𝑎 𝑟 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎

The capacitor has charge 𝑄 = 𝜆𝐿. The capacitance is

𝑄 𝜆𝐿 𝑏
𝐶= = = 2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝐿 ln ( ).
𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝜆 𝑏 𝑎
ln ( )
2𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑎
3. Again, consider two ideal parallel plate capacitors but, this time, one is separated by a dielectric with
permittivity twice as much as the other. If both capacitors’ plates have the same surface area and plate separation
distance, how do their capacitance values compare? How do their energy densities compare?
Solution: The first capacitor has capacitance
𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝜖1 .
𝑑
1
The second capacitor has half the permittivity of the first, 𝜖2 = 𝜖1 , and capacitance
2

𝐴 1 𝐴 1
𝐶2 = 𝜖2 = ( 𝜖1 ) = 𝐶1 .
𝑑 2 𝑑 2
The electric field 𝐸 between the plates of both capacitors is the same. The first capacitor has energy density
1
𝑢1 = 𝜖 𝐸2 .
2 1
The second capacitor has energy density

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics

1 1 1 1
𝑢2 = 𝜖2 𝐸2 = ( 𝜖1 ) 𝐸2 = 𝑢1 .
2 2 2 2

Student Exercises
1. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) In open-heart surgery, a much smaller amount of energy will
defibrillate the heart. (a) What voltage is applied to the 8.0 μF capacitor of a heart defibrillator that stores
40.0 J of energy? (b) Find the amount of the stored charge.
2. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) If the capacitance per unit length of a cylindrical capacitor is
20 pF/m, what is the ratio of the radii of the two cylinders?
3. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) Some cell walls in the human body have a layer of negative
charge on the inside surface. Suppose that the surface charge densities are ±0.5 × 10−3 C/m2 , the cell wall is
5.0 nm thick, and the cell wall material has a dielectric constant 𝜅 = 5.4. (a) Find the magnitude of the electric
field in the wall between two charge layers. (b) Find the potential difference between the inside and the outside
of the cell. Which is at higher potential? (c) A typical cell in the human body has volume 10−16 𝑚3 . Estimate
the total electrical field energy stored in the wall of a cell of this size when assuming that the cell is spherical.
(Hint: Calculate the volume of the cell wall.)

References
• Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics, 12th Ed., Global Edition. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education
Limited, 2015.
• OpenStax College. University Physics, 3 Vols.. OpenStax, 2018.
• Serway, Raymond A and John W Jewett Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th Ed. Belmont,
CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole, 2004.
• Young, Hugh D, Roger A Freedman and Albert Lewis Ford. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics
with Modern Physics, 13th Ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc., 2012

Supplementary Materials
Review the following sections of OpenStax College University Physics Vol. 2:
8.1 Capacitors and Capacitance
8.2 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
8.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
8.4 Capacitor with a Dielectric
Watch Capacitors and capacitance [Link]
Capacitors in series [Link]
Capacitors in parallel [Link]
Energy of a capacitor [Link]
Dielectrics in capacitors [Link]

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7-13 University of the Philippines Los Baños | Albia, Colambo, DeVera, Dizon, Jusi, Parel, Piñol, Santos
Answers to Conceptual Questions
1. The net charge is zero since both plates have charges equal in magnitude but are opposite in sign.
2. The magnitude of the electric field will decrease.
3. Since 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑, doubling the voltage doubles the electric field. The magnitude of the charge on the plates would subsequently
increase, negating the increase in potential difference. The capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor remains constant.
4. Distance between the conductors, geometry of the conductors, the insulating material (or dielectric) between the conductors
Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 2: Capacitance and Dielectrics
 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law

Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law

Summary
Since its discovery, electricity has become an important part of day-to-day life. Technological advances made
possible through electricity has allowed us to enjoy conveniences, entertainment, modern means of
communication and transportation, better healthcare (from diagnosis to treatment), etc. Among the laws that
catalyzed further discoveries in this field was Ohm’s Law. Discovered by Georg Simon Ohm, rewritten by
James Clerk Maxwell, and reformulated by Gustav Robert Kirchoff, Ohm’s Law is perhaps one of the most
well-known and important early quantitative description of the physics of electricity.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• State Ohm’s Law
• Calculate resistance and the resistivity certain materials

Concepts and Equations

Terms Description
Electric Current Electric current (or simply, current) 𝐼 is defined as the
time rate of flow of electric charge,

𝑑𝑄
𝐼= .
𝑑𝑡

When placed near or in an electric field, charges or charge

carriers move. The motion of charge carriers is described
in terms of its drift velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑣𝑑 The amount of charge
flowing through given area 𝐴 per unit time is

𝐼 = 𝑛|𝑞|𝑣𝑑 𝐴

where 𝑛 is the concentration (number of charge carriers)

and 𝑞 is the charge of the charge carriers.

Current is a scalar quantity. The flow of current is usually

described in terms of the movement of positive charge
carriers.

SI unit: A, Ampere [1 A = 1 C/s]

Current Density Current density is current per unit (cross-sectional) area,

𝐼
𝐽= = 𝑛|𝑞 |𝑣𝑑 .
𝐴

Current density may be expressed as a vector,

𝐽⃗ = 𝑛𝑞𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑑

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law In certain temperature ranges, it is observed that the

current density 𝐽⃗ is directly proportional to the electric
field 𝐸⃗⃗,

𝐸⃗⃗ ∝ 𝐽⃗.

This relationship is called Ohm’s Law. Materials that

obey Ohm’s law are said to be ohmic.
Resistivity Resistivity is defined as the ratio of the magnitudes of the
electric field and current density,

𝐸
𝜌= .
𝐽

Resistivity is an intrinsic property of materials. It depends

on the composition of the material and changes under
different temperature settings.

SI unit: Ω ∙ m, Ohm-meter

Table 7.3.1 Some materials and their approximate resistivity

measurements at 20oC
Material 𝝆 (Ω ∙ m)
Aluminum 2.82 × 10−8
Copper 1.70 × 10−8
Gold 2.44 × 10−8
Iron 10.0 × 10−8
Lead 22.0 × 10−8
Platinum 11.0 × 10−8
Silver 1.59 × 10−8
Tungsten 5.60 × 10−8
Nichrome (Ni-Cr alloy) 1.50 × 10−6
Carbon 3.50 × 10−5
Germanium 0.46
Silicon 640
Glass 1010 − 1014
Hard rubber 1013
Sulfur 1015
Quartz (fused) 75 × 106
Conductivity Conductivity 𝜎 is the reciprocal of resistivity,

1
𝜎= .
𝜌

Materials with high conductivity are preferred for electric

power distribution.
Ohm’s Law (Kirchhoff’s Reformulation) Consider a segment of a conductor of length 𝐿. One end
of this segment is held at a lower potential while the other
end is held at a higher potential. The potential difference
𝑉 creates a uniform electric field 𝐸 in the conductor. From
Chapter 1, we know that

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law

𝑉 = 𝐸𝐿.
𝑉
Therefore, 𝐸 = . In terms of this voltage and the
𝐿
resulting current 𝐼 through a specified area 𝐴, Ohm’s law
can be written as

𝑉 𝐼
=𝜌
𝐿 𝐴

or

𝐿
𝑉 = 𝐼 (𝜌 ) = 𝐼𝑅.
𝐴

Resistance For a material that obeys Ohm’s Law, 𝑉 is proportional

to 𝐼. The ratio V/I is the resistance 𝑅 of the material.

For a cylindrical conductor,

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

where 𝜌 is the resistivity, 𝐿 is the length of the conductor,

and 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

SI unit: Ω, Ohm

Conceptual Questions
1. Do electrons follow the flow of current or do they flow against it?
2. How do you differentiate current with current density?
3. How is resistance different from resistivity?

Problems
1. A 100-m long golden wire (𝜌 = 2.45 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) carrying a current of 2.0 A has a cross-section area of
0.2 μm2 . If the wire’s resistivity is not affected by temperature changes, calculate the potential difference
between the wire ends and the resistance of the wire.
Solution: Assuming that the material is ohmic, we can use Kirchhoff’s reformulation of Ohm’s law to calculate
the potential difference between the wire ends:
𝐿 100 m
𝑉 = 𝐼 (𝜌 ) = (2.0 A) ((2.45 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) ( )) = 24.5 𝑉
𝐴 0.2 × 10−6 m2
The resistance of the wire
𝑉 𝐿
𝑅= = 𝜌 = 12.25 Ω ≈ 12.3 Ω.
𝐼 𝐴

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law

2. The four wires listed below are made of silver (𝜌 = 1.50 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m). Rank the wires according to their
resistance, least to greatest.
Wire 1: 𝐴1 = 0.1 μm2 , 𝐿1 = 1.0 m
Wire 2: 𝐴2 = 0.2 μm2 , 𝐿2 = 2.0 m
Wire 3: 𝐴3 = 0.2 μm2 , 𝐿3 = 1.0 m
Wire 4: 𝐴1 = 0.1 μm2 , 𝐿1 = 2.0 m
Solution:

Wire No. Resistance

𝐿1 1.0 m
Wire 1 𝑅1 = 𝜌 = (1.50 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) ( ) = 0.15 Ω
𝐴1 0.1 × 10−6 m2
𝐿2 2.0 m
Wire 2 𝑅2 = 𝜌 = (1.50 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) ( ) = 0.15 Ω
𝐴2 0.2 × 10−6 m2
𝐿3 1.0 m
Wire 3 𝑅3 = 𝜌 = (1.50 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) ( ) = 0.075 Ω
𝐴3 0.2 × 10−6 m2
𝐿3 2.0 m
Wire 4 𝑅3 = 𝜌 = (1.50 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m) ( ) = 0.30 Ω
𝐴3 0.1 × 10−6 m2

Therefore, 𝑅3 > (𝑅1 = 𝑅2 ) > 𝑅4 .

Student Exercises
1. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) What current flows through a 2.54 cm-diameter rod of pure
silicon that is 20.0 cm long, when 1.00 kV is applied to it? (Such a rod may be used to make nuclear- particle
detectors, for example.)
2. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) A Van de Graaff generator is one of the original particle
accelerators and can be used to accelerate charged particles like protons or electrons. You may have seen it used
to make human hair stand on end or produce large sparks. One application of the Van de Graaff generator is to
create X-rays by bombarding a hard metal target with the beam. Consider a beam of protons at 1.00 keV and a
current of 5.00 mA produced by the generator. (a) What is the speed of the protons? (b) How many protons are
produced each second?
3. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) A wire with a resistance of 5.0 Ω is drawn out through a die
so that its new length is twice times its original length. Find the resistance of the longer wire. You may assume
that the resistivity and density of the material are unchanged.

References
• Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics, 12th Ed., Global Edition. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education
Limited, 2015.
• OpenStax College. University Physics, 3 Vols.. OpenStax, 2018.
• Serway, Raymond A and John W Jewett Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th Ed. Belmont,
CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole, 2004.
• Young, Hugh D, Roger A Freedman and Albert Lewis Ford. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics
with Modern Physics, 13th Ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc., 2012

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7-18 University of the Philippines Los Baños | Albia, Colambo, DeVera, Dizon, Jusi, Parel, Piñol, Santos
Answers to Conceptual Questions
1. Current is usually described in terms of the flow of positive charges or charge carriers. Therefore, negative charges or charge carriers
such as electrons flow in the opposite direction.
2. Current is a scalar quantity while current density is a vector quantity.
3. Resistivity is an intrinsic property of a material while resistance is not. Under the same conditions (such as temperature), the
resistivity of two wires made of the same material is the same. However, resistance of the wires can vary depending on their lengths
and geometries.
Resistivity and conductivity [Link]
Watch Introduction to circuits and Ohm’s law [Link]
9.4 Ohm’s Law
9.3 Resistivity and Resistance
9.2 Model of Conduction in Metals
9.1 Electric Current
Review the following sections of OpenStax College University Physics Vol. 2:
Supplementary Materials
Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law
 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 4: DC Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws

Chapter 4: DC Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws

Summary
Electronic devices, gadgets, and other modern conveniences are made of interconnected networks of (voltage)
sources, resistors, and other circuit elements. In our study of electric circuits, we consider two cases: (1) direct-
current (DC), in which current is unidirectional and (2) alternating current (AC), in which current is oscillatory.
Principles used in the analysis of DC circuits are also applicable to AC circuits.

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Use Kirchhoff’s loop and junction rules to analyze DC circuits

Concepts and Equations

Terms Description
Electric Circuit An electric circuit is an arrangement of electric
components that forms a closed path and where current
can flow completely and uninterruptedly.
Circuit Components and Diagrams Component and Purpose
Symbol
Wire Conducts electricity; ideally does
not contribute to the circuit’s
resistance
Switch Closes or opens a circuit

Resistor Resists the flow of current

DC Voltage Provides DC voltage difference

Source across the circuit; ideally, it has no
internal resistance; the longer line
represents a higher potential and is
the positive terminal
Capacitor Used to store electric energy; there
are two types, polarized (left) and
non-polarized (right).

Ammeter Used to measure current, connected

in series to the resistor/load
Voltmeter Used to measure voltage; connected
in parallel to the resistor/load
Resistors in Series

Fig. 7.4.1

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 4: DC Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws

The equivalent resistance is

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 .

Resistors in Parallel

Fig. 7.4.2

The equivalent resistance is

1 1 1 1
= + + .
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule The algebraic sum of all potential differences in a closed
circuit (or loop) is zero,

∑ 𝑉 = 0.

This is a consequence of the law of conservation of

energy.

For voltage sources,

• +𝜀 if travel direction is from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal
• −𝜀 if travel direction is from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal
For resistors,
• +𝐼𝑅 if travel direction is opposite the direction
of the current
• −𝐼𝑅 if travel direction is in the same direction as
the current
Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule The sum of the all the currents flowing in or out a junction
is zero,

∑ 𝐼 = 0.

This means that the current entering a junction is equal to

the current leaving the junction. Kirchhoff’s Junction
Rule is a consequence of the law of conservation of
charge.
Power Power 𝑃 is the amount of energy is supplied to or
obtained from a circuit component over time. Given a
potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 across a circuit element with
resistance 𝑅,

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐼 = (𝐼𝑅)(𝐼) = 𝐼 2 𝑅

SI unit: W, Watt [1 W = 1 J⁄s]

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 4: DC Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws

Conceptual Questions
1. What happens to the total current across circuit with resistors connected
in series? How about in the case of a circuit with resistors connected in
parallel?
2. Kilowatt-hour is a measure of what quantity?

Problems
1. Calculate the current across each resistor in the given circuit.
Solution: First, we assume a direction for the current. As shown in the figure, the current leaves the positive
terminal of the source. It then passes through R1 and then encounters the junction labeled a. The current is then
divided. One portion passes through R2 and the remaining portion passes through R3. The two currents then
meet at junction b and return to the source.

Applying Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule,

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 (1)
The circuit has three loops – the upper loop (purple), the lower loop (orange), and the small loop (red).

Using Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule, we obtain the following equations:

Upper loop (purple) 5V − 10𝐼1 − 20𝐼2 = 0 (2)
Lower loop (orange) 5V − 10𝐼1 − 30𝐼3 = 0 (3)
Small loop (red) −20𝐼2 + 30𝐼3 = 0 (4)
From (4),
30
𝐼2 = 𝐼 = 1.5𝐼3 (5)
20 3

Using (5) in (1),

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 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 4: DC Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws

𝐼1 = 1.5𝐼3 + 𝐼3 = 2.5𝐼3 (6)

Substituting (6) in (3),
5V − 10(2.5𝐼3 ) − 30𝐼3 = 0 (3)
Therefore, 𝐼3 = 0.091 A, 𝐼2 = 0.136 A, and 𝐼1 = 0.227 A.
2. What is the potential difference across each resistor in #1?
Solution:
𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 2.27 V
𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 2.73 V
𝑉3 = 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 2.73 V
3. Calculate the power for each resistor in #1.
Solution:
𝑃1 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 ≈ 0.52 𝑊
𝑃2 = 𝐼22 𝑅2 ≈ 0.37 𝑊
𝑃3 = 𝐼32 𝑅3 ≈ 0.25 𝑊

Student Exercises
1. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) Consider the circuit shown below. Does the analysis of the
circuit require Kirchhoff’s method, or can it be redrawn to simplify the circuit? If it is a circuit of series and
parallel connections, what is the equivalent resistance?

2. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) What are the largest and smallest resistances you can obtain
by connecting a 36.0 Ω, 50.0 Ω, and 700.0 Ω resistor together?
3. (OpenStax College. University Physics. Vol. 2) Consider the circuit shown below. Find 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and 𝐼3 .

University of the Philippines Los Baños | Albia, Colambo, DeVera, Dizon, Jusi, Parel, Piñol, Santos 7-22
 Module 7: Electric Potential and Circuits | Chapter 4: DC Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws

References
• Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics, 12th Ed., Global Edition. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education
Limited, 2015.
• OpenStax College. University Physics, 3 Vols.. OpenStax, 2018.
• Serway, Raymond A and John W Jewett Jr. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th Ed. Belmont,
CA: Thomson-Brooks/Cole, 2004.
• Young, Hugh D, Roger A Freedman and Albert Lewis Ford. Sears and Zemansky's University Physics
with Modern Physics, 13th Ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education Inc., 2012

Supplementary Materials
Review the following sections of OpenStax College University Physics Vol. 2:
10.1 Electromotive Force
10.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel
10.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Watch Resistors in series [Link]
Resistors in parallel [Link]
Kirchhoff’s voltage law [Link]
Kirchhoff’s current law [Link]
Example: Analyzing a more complex resistor circuit [Link]

2. Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a measure of energy.

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule, the current through each of the resistor in parallel must add up.
connected in parallel, the current will encounter a junction as it flows through the circuit and will then be divided. According to
1. In a DC series circuit, current flows in one direction only. The same current flows in all resistors connected in series. With resistors

Answers to Conceptual Questions

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