REAL ANALYSIS 1

BY DR. DAVID MURIUKI GIKUNJU

Instruction Hours: 45
Pre-requisites: Discrete mathematics

Purpose of the course

To introduce learners to the concepts of real numbers system, set theory count-
able, finite infinite, sets, types of convergence their calculus and the concept of
meter
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
i) Describe and use the real numbers systems
ii) Explain the principle of convergence
iii) To evaluate functions in metric space
iv) Evaluate Riemann integral
v) Apply real analysis I as basis for real analysis II
Course Content
The real number system; Field structure and order structure;

Bounded and unbounded sets; Supremun and infimum;

Completeness in the set of real numbers:
Open set, Closed set, Closure of set, Countable and uncountable sets;
Sequences-Limit point of sequence; Limit inferior and limit superior;
Convergent sequences;
Monotonic sequences Cauchy’s general principal of convergent:
Series with positive terms; Partial sums of series;
Tests of convergence: Comparison tests; Cauchy’s Root test;
D’Alembert’ Ratio test; Integral tests; Alternating series;
Absolute and Conditional convergence; Function –limit; Continuity;

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Uniform continuity;
Metric spaces-topology on metric spaces;
Riemann integral
Teaching / Learning Methodologies
Lectures; Tutorials; Class discussion
Instructional Materials and Equipment

Handouts; Chalk board

Course Assessment
Examination - 70%;
Continuous Assessments (Exercises and Tests) - 30%;
Total - 100%
Recommended Text Books
1. Royden Hl (2008); Real Analysis; Dorling Kindersley (india) Pvt Ltd.
2. John M Howie (2005); Real Analysis; Springer Verlag
3. Church A. E (2006); Elements of Analytical Geometry; University of Michi-
gan Library Press.
4. Kirkwood (1995); An Introduction to Analysis; PWS- Publishing Boston
Text Books for further Reading
1. Gopta S. L. (1993); Fundamental of Real Analysis; Vikas publishing New

York.
2. Royden Hot (1988); Real Analysis; McMillan – London

1 SETS

A set is a collection of well/precisely defined objects. The different objects

which form a set are called members/elements of the set. The elements of a set
are enclosed in a curly bracket ie. {} . We usually denote a set by a upper case
letter and the elements by a small letter. eg A = {a, b, c, d} .

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A set can be described by listing its members or by defining a rule or a function
that describes its elements. E.g. B = {x ∈ N : n = k 2 for some k ∈ N}.
A set can be finite or infinite according to whether it has finite or infinite number
of members eg A = {1, 2, 3} is a finite set. B = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...} is an infinite set.
Operation on sets
Let A and B be a sets, then;

a) union
A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
eg A = {a, b, e} B = {a, b, g} then A ∪ B = {a, b, g, e}
b) Intersection
A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
c) Subset
Let A and B be a sets then A is a subset of the B if every element\members of
A a member of B. ie A ⊂ B
d) Empty set
It is a set with no member and is denoted by ∅. If E = {2, 4, 6, 8} and F =
{1, 3, 5} then E ∩ F = ∅
e) Universal set
If we have sets under consideration a fixed set which contains all these set is

called a universal set denoted by ⊔

f) Complement
If ⊔ is the universal set and A is a subset of ⊔ then all the elements of ⊔ which
do not belong to A forms the complement of A in ⊔ and denoted Ac or A
ie. Ac = {x|x ∈ ⊔ and x ∈
/ A}
Properties of complements
Let A and B be subsets of ⊔ then
i. (Ac )c = A

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ii. (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
iii. (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
ii and iii is known as De Morgans law
g) Equal set
Let A and B be sets then A = B if A is subset of B and B is a subset of A
ieA ⊂ B and B ⊂ A ie (∀x)(x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B}

h) Set diference
Let A and B be sets then A \ B = {x|x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

2 Intervals

If a, b ∈ R and a < b, then

Finite intervals
i. (a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b} is called an open interval.
ii. [a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b} is called a closed interval.
iii [a, b) , (a, b]={x ∈ R|a ≤ x < b},x ∈ R|a < x ≤ b} is called half-closed or
half-open interval.

Infinite intervals
i. (a, ∞), (−∞, a) = {x ∈ R|x > a}, x ∈ R|x < a} is called open interval.
ii. [a, ∞), (−∞, a] = {x ∈ R|x ≥ a}, x ∈ R|x ≤ a} is called closed interval.

3 Indexed families of sets

Suppose I is a set and for each i ∈ I there corresponds one and only one subset
Ai of the universal set ⊔. The collection {Ai : i ∈ I} is called an indexing family
of sets or indexed collection of sets.
Let {Ai : i ∈ I} be the indexed family of subset of the universal set ⊔.

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i. The union of the family {Ai : i ∈ I} denoted by ∪i∈I Ai is the set of all those
elements of ⊔ which belong to at least one of the Ai . ie ∪i∈I Ai = {x ∈ ⊔ : x ∈ Ai
for some i ∈ I}
ii. The intersection of the family {Ai : i ∈ I} denoted ∩i∈I Ai is the set of all
those elements of ⊔ which belong to all the Ai .ie. ∩i∈I Ai = {x ∈ ⊔ : x ∈ Ai for
each i ∈ I}

4 Functions

Definition: Let A and B sets. A function from A to B written f : A −→ B is a

rule that assigns to each element x ∈ A a unique element y ∈ B. In this case y
is called the value of f at x denoted f (x) i.e y = f (x).
definition: Let f : A −→ B be a function then f is said to be
i. Injective ( one to one ) if for each y ∈ B there is at most one x ∈ A such
that f (x) = y ie if a1 6= a2 =⇒ f (a1 ) 6= f (a2 ) or a1 = a2 =⇒ f (a1 ) = f (a2 )
∀a1 , a2 ∈ A.
ii. Surjective (onto) if for every y ∈ B there is an x ∈ A such that f (x) = y i.e

{∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A|f (x) = y} .

iii. Bijective: If it is both injective and surjective.

5 Real number system

Algebraic structures of real numbers

Let + denote addition and · denote multiplication
i. x + y ∈ R∀x, y ∈ R
x · y ∈ R∀x, y ∈ R-closure
ii. (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
(x · y) · z = x · (y · z)-Associative

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iii. x + y = y + x
x · y = y · x - commutative
iv. ∃ distinct elements 0 and 1 such that x + 0 = 0 + x = x, ∀x ∈ R
1 · x = x · 1 = x, ∀ ∈ R
0 additive identity and 1 multiplicative identity.
v. ∀x ∈ R ∃ a real number y ∈ R such that x + y = 0. y is called the additive

inverse
∀x ∈ R ∃ a real number y ∈ R such that x · y = 1. y is called the multiplicative
inverse
Any set with two operation + and · satisfying all the above properties is a field.

6 Bounded sets of real numbers

Let A be a subset of R. We say that A is bounded from above if there exist

a number b ∈ R such that a ≤ b ∀a ∈ A. Any such number b is called an
upper bound for the set A. We also say that A is bounded below if there exist
a number c ∈ R such that a ≥ c ∀a ∈ A. Any such number c is called a lower

bound for the set A

If b is an upper bound of A and for every ǫ > 0 there exist an a ∈ A such that
a > b − ǫ then b is called the least upper bound (L.U.B) or supremum of A.
Supremum of A , denoted by Sup A.
Similarly, if c is a lower bound of A and for every ǫ > 0 there exist an a ∈ A
such that a < c + ǫ then c is called the greatest lower bound (G.L.B) or infimum
of A, denoted Inf A.
Example
The set of all positive real number R+ ={x ∈ R|x > 0} is a subset of R which
is not bounded. It is bounded below in fact any x ≤ 0 is a lower bound. For
R+ is not bounded from above.

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Example
Show that the sequence { n1 }; n ∈ N is bounded. Hence determine the supremum
and infimum.
solution
Since all members of the set are less than 2 and greater than -1(for example)
then the set is bounded. 2 is the upper bound while -1 is the lower bound of

the set.
Since no member of the set is greater than 1 and there is at least one member
of the set which exceeds 1 − ǫ for every ǫ > [Link] see that 1 is the supremum
of the set. Since no member of the set is less than zero and there is at least
one member of the set which is less than 0 + ǫ for every ǫ > 0, we see 0 is the
infimum of the set.
Example
The set Z ={..., −3. − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} is unbounded.
Example
Y = {sinx|0 ≤ x < 2π} is bounded by -1 and 1.
Example
√
Let S ⊆ R be defined by S = {q ∈ Q : 2 ≤ q ≤ 7}. Determine the supremum
and infimum of the set.

solution
√ √
S = {q ∈ Q : 2 ≤ q ≤ 7} Sup S= 7 and inf S=2
Exercise
1. Find the upper bound,supremum, lower bound and infimum of the following
i. D = {0, 21 , 23 , 43 , 45 , 54 , 56 , ...}
ii. A = (3, 4)
iii.. B = { 21 , 34 , 87 , ..., 2 2−1
n
n }

π
v. Y = {tanx|0 ≤ x ≤ 2}

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2. Prove that empty set ∅ is bound.

7 Completeness axiom of real numbers

Every non-empty subset S of real numbers that is bounded above has a supre-
mum and every non-empty subset S of real numbers that is bounded below has
an infimum
Example
The set of all negative integers is bounded above and its supremum is −1 ∈ R.

8 Countable and uncountable sets

A set is said to be countable if its elements can be placed in one to one corre-
spondence with the set of natural numbers.
Example

The set of all even natural numbers is countable.

proof
Let A be the set of all even natural numbers and consider the following arrange-
ment of the sets A and N.

A 2 4 6 8 . . .

N 1 2 3 4 . . .

Then the function f : N −→A defined by f (n) = 2n, n ∈ N sets up a 1 − 1

correspondence between the two sets.

Example
The set of all integers is countable.
solution
Consider the following arrangement of the set Z and N

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 Z 0 1 -1 2 -2 3 -3 . .

N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 . .

Then we can define a function f : N −→Z which sets up a 1 − 1 arrangement as

follows 
n



2 if n is even
f (n) =
 −(n−1)


2 if n is odd
Example
A subset of a countable set is countable
solution
Let E ⊆ S where S is countable. Since S is countable, there is a 1 − 1 function
from N onto S. i.e f : N → S, clearly f : N → S is 1 − 1 since E ⊆ S,hence E is
countable.

Example
∞
If An is a collection of countable sets then A = ∪ An is countable
n=1
solution
Let every set An be arranged in a sequence
|Xnk | k = 1, 2, 3, ... and consider the infinite array

In which the elements of An form the nth row. Clearly the array contains all
∞
the elements of A = ∪ An . These elements can be arranged in a sequence as
n=1
indicated by arrows X11 , X21 , X22 , X31 , X22 , X33 , X41 , X32 , X23 , X14 , ... deleting
the elements which have already been listed. This produce results in an infi-

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nite sequence of elements {Z1 , Z2 , Z3 , ...} of A which can be placed into 1 − 1
∞
correspondence with the set of natural numbers hence A = ∪ An is countable.
n=1
Uncountable Sets
A set is said to be uncountable if it is not countable i.e there is no 1 − 1
correspondence with the set of natural numbers.
Example

Theorem
The set of real numbers is uncountable.
proof
Suppose R is countable then R can be written as a sequence of numbers say
R = {x1, x2 , x3 , ...xn }
choose a1 , b1 ∈ R such that x1 ∈
/ [a1 , b2 ]
a1 < b1 having done this choose a2 , b2 ∈ R such that a1 ≤ a2 < b2 ≤ b1
and x2 ∈
/ [a2 , b2 ]
continuing this way choose an+1 , bn+1 such that an ≤ an+1 < bn+1 ≤ bn and
xn+1 ∈
/ [an+1 , bn+1 ] for each n xn ∈
/ [an , bn ] and so none of the members
x1 , x2 , ...xn can be in the interval [an , bn ].
Define A = {an |n ∈ Z + } and let α = SupA. Clearly α is a real number and
so for some natural N we must have α = xn . Since α is an upper bound of

A an ≤ α and α is the least upper bound of A. We have α ≤ bn . Hence we

conclude that xn ∈ [an, bn ] which is a contradiction.

9 METRIC SPACES

Let X be a non-empty, A metric on X is distance function d on X × X onto a

non-negative real satisfying the following axioms
i.M1:: d(x, y) ≥ 0 and d(x, y) = 0 iff x=y ∀x, y ∈ X
ii.M2:: d(x, y) = d(y, x) ∀x, y ∈ X

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iii.M3::d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) ∀x, y, z ∈ X
The non negative number d(x, y) is called the distance between x and y in X.
The ordered pair (X,d) is called the metric space.
Example
In the set R of real numbers, define a function d : R × R −→ R+ ∪ {0} by
d(x, y) = |x − y| ∀x, y ∈ R then it follows from the properties of absolute values

that d is a metric on R
Proof
M1:: we know that d(x, y) = |x − y| ≥ 0 by the property of absolute value. Also
if d(x, y) = 0 then |x − y| = 0 such that x − y = 0−→ x = y. If x=y then x-y=0
=⇒ d(x, y) = 0 hence d(x, y) = 0 iff x=y.
M2::d(x, y) = |x − y| = | − (y − x)|
= −1|y − x| = |y − x|
= d(y, x) ∀x, y ∈ R
M3::d(x, z) = |x − z| = |x − y + y − z|
d(x, z) ≤ |x − y| + |y − z|
d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) ∀x, y, z ∈ R
Thus d is a metric.
Example

For each positive integer K , let RK be the set of all k-tuples where X =
{x1 , x2 , ....xk } where x1 , x2 , ....xk are real numbers called the coordinates of X.
The elements of RK are called points for vectors for any x, y ∈ RK define the
k
function d(x,y) by d(x, y) = | xi − yi | Show d is a metric on RK
P
i=1
solution
Pk
M1:: d(x, y) = | xi − yi | ≥ 0 since |xi − yi | ≥ 0 ∀i
i=1
Pk
also if d(x,y)=0 then | xi − yi | = 0=⇒ xi − yi = 0=⇒ xi = yi ∀i x=y.
i=1
k
P
If x=y=⇒ ∀i xi = yi =⇒ xi − yi = 0 =⇒ | xi − yi | = 0 =⇒ d(x, y).
i=1

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 Pk k
P Pk
M2:: d(x, y) = | xi − yi |= | −(yi − xi )| = | yi − xi | =d(y,x).
i=1 i=1 i=1
Pk Pk
M3:: d(x,z)= | xi − zi |= | xi − yi + yi − zi |
i=1 i=1
k
P Pk
≤ | xi − yi |+ | yi − zi |
i=1 i=1
≤d(x, y) + d(y, z) ∀x, y, z ∈ R
Thus d is a metric on RK
Exercise 

 1
 p 6= q
Let X be a non empty set, for p, q ∈ X let d(p, q) =

 0
 p=q
show that d is a metric on X.
Definition
Let X be a non-empty set. A topology on X is a collection τ of subsets of X
such that
i. ∅, X ∈ τ
ii. The union of any number of members of τ is in τ .
iii. Finite intersection of members of τ is in τ .
The elements of τ in this case are called open( τ - open ) subsets of X. eg The
set of all open intervals of real numbers is a topology on R.

10 Structure of a metric space

Neighborhoods
definition
Let N ⊆ R and let x ∈ [Link] N is a neighborhood (nbhd) of x if ∃ ǫ > 0 such
that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ N . Clearly, if N is a nbhd of x, then x ∈ N . This implies
that if x ∈
/ N , then N is not a nbhd of x. In other word if a is a fixed point in
X and r is a positive real number then, the set of all points x ∈ X such that
d(x, a) < r is called a neighborhood of a of radius r denoted N (a, r).

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Example
Consider the set A = (1, 4) then A is a nbhd of 3 since if we take ǫ = 0.1, then
(3 − 0.1, 3 + 0.1) = (2.9, 3.1) ⊂ (1, 4)
However, A is not a nbhd of 1 since for any ǫ > 0 (1 − ǫ, 1) ⊂ (1 − ǫ, 1 + ǫ) but
(1 − ǫ, 1) ∩ A = ∅ implying that (1 − ǫ, 1 + ǫ) * A
Similarly, for any ǫ > 0 , (4, 4 + ǫ) ⊂ (4 − ǫ, 4 + ǫ), but (4, 4 + ǫ) ∩ A = 4 so that

(4 − ǫ, 4 + ǫ) * A for any ǫ > [Link], A is not a nbhd of 4.

NB: if 1 < x < 4, then A is a nbhd of x.
Example
In general, the set A=(a,b) or (a,b] or [a,b) or[a,b] is a nbhd of x if a < x < b .
However, A is not a nbhd of x if x ∈
/ (a, b)
Exercise
Consider the set A = (1, 3) ∪ {8}. Show that A
i. is a nbhd of 2
ii. not a nbhd of either 3 or 8
iii. not a nbhd of 5
Theorem
If U is a nbhd of x and U ⊆ V , then V is also a nbhd of x
proof

Suppose U is a nbhd of x. Then ∃ ǫ > 0 such that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ U since

U ⊆ V , then (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ V . Thus V is a also a nbhd of x.
Interior points
A point x is an interior point of a set A if ∃ ǫ > 0 such that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ A.
The interior of A, denoted int(A) or Å, is the set of all interior points of A.
To prove that x ∈ int(A), we show that ∃ ǫ > 0 such that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ A
/ int(A), we points that ∀ ǫ > 0 , (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) * A ie
and to prove that x ∈
(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) contains points not in A.

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NB if x ∈ int(A), then x ∈ A.
Proposition
Int(A) ⊆ A
proof
Suppose x ∈ int(A). Then ∃ ǫ > 0 , (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ A . Since x ∈ (x − ǫ, x + ǫ),
then x ∈ A. Therefore, Int(A) ⊆ A .

Example
Every point of (a,b) where a < b is an interior point of (a,b). To show this, let
min{|x−a|,|x−b|}
ǫ= 2 then, (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊂ (a, b)
On the other hand, any point outside of (a,b) is not an interior point. Therefore
int((a,b))=(a,b)
Example
The points a and b are not interior point of [a,b] for a < b. However, every
other point of the interval is an interior point. Therefore, int([a,b])=(a,b)
Example
Let B = [1, 2] ∪ {3} then B̊=(1,2)
Example
The set Q and Qc = R r Q have no interior points ie int(Q) = ∅ and int(Qc ) = ∅
proof

Suppose x ∈ int(Q). Then ∃ ǫ > 0 such that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ Q but this cant

happen since there is at least one irrational number between x − ǫ and x + ǫ
(from the fact every interval of positive length contains both a rational and an
irrational number) so int(Q) = ∅ . The same argument works for irrationals.
Definition
Let A be a set of real [Link] exterior of A denoted ext(A), is the interior
of its complement i.e Ext(A)=int(Ac )
Example

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If A =(a,b), the ext(A) = int((−∞, a] ∪ [b, ∞))=(−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞)
Isolated points
A point x is an isolated point of A if ∃ ǫ > 0 such that A ∩ (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) = {x}
i.e x is an isolated point of A if ∃ an open interval containing x which does not
contain any point of A different from x.
NB If x is an isolated point of A, then x ∈ A

Example
Let A = [1, 3) ∪ {8}. For ǫ = 1, (8 − 1, 8 + 1) ∩ A = (7, 9) ∩ A = {8}, so 8 is an
isolated point of A . Now suppose x ∈ [1, 3) then ∀ǫ > 0 (x−ǫ, x+ǫ)∩Ar{x} =
6 ∅
ie A ∩ (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) 6= {x} ∀ǫ > 0 so, x is not isolated. Therefore, 8 is the only
isolated point of A.
Exercise
Consider the set A = [1, 2] ∪ {3} ∪ (4, 5). Show that 3 is the only isolated point
of A.
Limit points
Let A ⊂ R A point x ∈ R is a limit point or accumulation point or a cluster
point of A if ∀ ǫ > 0 (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ A r {x} 6= ∅ i.e x is a limit point of A if
every nbhd of x contains at least one point y ∈ A different from x. The set of
all limit points of a set A denoted Á is called the derived set of A.

NB
i. A limit point of A need not be an element of A. Hence Á need not be a subset
of A
ii. From definition, an isolated point point of A can never be a limit point of A.
In fact if p ∈ A and p ∈
/ Á, then p is an isolated point of A. On the other hand,
if p ∈ Á then p is not an isolated point of A.
Question
Show that if p ∈ A and p ∈
/ Á , then p is an isolated point

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solution
/ Á, then ∃ ǫ > 0 , (p − ǫ, p + ǫ) ∩ A r {p} = ∅. This means
Suppose p ∈ A. if p ∈
that (p − ǫ, p + ǫ) ∩ A = {p} for some ǫ > 0. Since p ∈ A and p ∈ (p − ǫ, p + ǫ)
for some ǫ > 0, then p is isolated.
Examples
i. Let A=(a,b) and let x ∈ A, Then x ∈ Á. This is so because for any ǫ > 0, the

interval (p − ǫ, p + ǫ) contains points of A other than x (infinitely many points

in fact) This shows that A ⊆ Á
ii. Consider the set A = (1, 3) ∪ {8} ∀ ǫ > 0(1, 1 + ǫ) ∩ A r {1} =
6 ∅=⇒ ∀ ǫ >
0 (1 − ǫ, 1 + ǫ) ∩ A r {1} 6= ∅ So , 1 ∈ Á
Similarly, ∀ ǫ > 0(3 − ǫ, 3) ∩ A r {3} 6= ∅=⇒ ∀ ǫ > 0 (3 − ǫ, 3 + ǫ) ∩ A r {3} =
6 ∅
meaning 3 ∈ Á
/ Á since (8 − 1, 8 + 1) ∩ A r {8} = (7, 9) ∩ A r {8} = ∅ (in fact 8
However, 8 ∈
is an isolated point of A)
´ ∅
iii. Z =
proof
Suppose x ∈ R is a limit point point of Z. Then for any ǫ > 0 (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ Z r
{x} = ∅ but ∀ x ∈ R, ∃ n ∈ Z such that n < x ≤ n + 1. If ǫ < min{|x − n|, |x −
n − 1|}, the interval contains no integers so that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ Z r {x} = ∅ so

, no real number can be a limit of Z

′
iv. Q = R
proof
For any x ∈ R and any ǫ > 0 the interval (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) contains infinitely many
points of Q other than x . Thus (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ Q r {x} = ∅ so, every real
number is a limit point of Q.
Exercise
Show that if X = { n1 : n ∈ N}, then x′ = {0}

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Example
1. Prove that if A, B ⊂ R and A ⊆ B then A′ ⊆ B ′
solution
Let x ∈ A′ . Then ∀ ǫ > 0, (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ A r {x} =
6 ∅. But A ⊆ B so ∀ ǫ > 0,
(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ B r {x} 6= ∅. Hence, x ∈ B ′ . Therefore , A′ ⊆ B ′ .
2. Prove that if A, B ⊂ R , then (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′ .

solution
A ⊆ A ∪ B =⇒ A′ ⊆ (A ∪ B)′
B ⊆ A ∪ B =⇒ B ′ ⊆ (A ∪ B)′
so, A′ ∪ B ′ ⊆ (A ∪ B)′ ....................(i)
Now, suppose x ∈ (A ∪ B)′ . Then ∀ ǫ > 0, (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ (A ∪ B) r {x} =
6 ∅
=⇒ (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ [A r {x} ∪ B r {x}] 6= ∅
=⇒ [(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ A r {x}] ∪ [(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ B r {x}] 6= ∅
=⇒ (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ A r {x} 6= ∅ or (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ B r {x} 6= ∅
=⇒ x ∈ A′ or x ∈ B ′
=⇒ x ∈ A′ ∪ B ′
so, (A ∪ B)′ ⊆ A′ ∪ B ′ ....................(ii)
From (i) and (ii) above (A ∪ B)′ = A′ ∪ B ′
Theorem

Let x ∈ R and X ⊂ R. If x is a limit point of X, then any nbhd of x contains

infinitely many members of X.
proof
Let A be a nbhd of x containing only a finite number of points of X i.e A ∩ X is
finite. Then A ∩ X r {x} is also finite. Suppose A ∩ X r {x} = {y1 , y2 , ..., yn }.
We show that ∀ ǫ > 0 , for which (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ A does not contain a member of
X r {x}. Since both A and (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) are nbhds of x, so is their intersection.
This will prove there is a nbhd of x containing no element of X r {x} hence

17
proving x is not a limit point of X. Let ǫ = min{|x − y1 |, |x − y2 |, ..., |x − yn |}.
Since x 6= yi and ǫ > 0, then (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ A contains no point of X other than
x, hence the proof.
Corollary
a. If x has a nbhd which only contains finitely many members of X, then x
cannot be a limit point of X.

b. A finite point set has no limit points.

Open sets and closed sets
Let X ⊆ R, then
a. X is open if for any x ∈ X, ∃ ǫ > 0 such that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ X
i.e X is open if it/ contains a nbhd of each of its points
From definition, X is open if every point of X is an interior of X.
b. X is closed if every limit point of X is a point of X.
Theorem
A set X is open if and only if its complement is closed
proof
Suppose X is open. Let x be a limit point of X c . Then every nhbd of x contains
a point y ∈ X c such that y 6= x. Hence x ∈
/ int(X) . Since X is open, then
/ X, meaning that x ∈ X c . It now follows that X c is closed. Conversely,
x ∈

Suppose X c is closed. Let x ∈ X. Then x ∈

/ X c and x is not a limit point
of X c (since X c is closed) So, ∃ ǫ > 0 such that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ∩ X c = ∅ ie
(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊂ X. Thus x ∈ int(X) and it follows that X is open.
Corollary
A set X is closed iff its complement is open
Question
Prove that the empty set ∅ is open
proof

18
Assume the contrary that the empty set is not open there there exists at least
one point a ∈ ∅ with neighborhood N (a) such that N (a) ⊂ ∅, But ∅ has not
such element since its empty. This is a contradiction. Therefore the empty set
must be open.
Theorem
Let X ⊆ R, then

a. Å is open
b. A is open iff A = Å
c. If B is open and B ⊆ A, then B ⊆ Å
proof
(a) we need to show that if x ∈ Å,then ∃ ǫ > 0, (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊂ Å
Suppose x ∈ Å,then ∃ ǫ > 0, (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊂ A. We show that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ Å
by showing that every point of (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) is an interior point of A. let y ∈
min{|y−x+ǫ|,|y−x−ǫ|}
(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) and let ε = 2

Then (y − ǫ, y + ǫ) ⊂ (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ A. So, y ∈ Å and since y was arbitrary,

(x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ Å.
(b) Suppose A = Å. Then A is open since Å is open, from (a). Conversely,
Suppose A is open. Then every point of A is an interior of A . So A ⊆ Å. But,
by definition A˚⊆[Link], A = Å.

(c) Let x ∈ B. Then x ∈ B̊since (B = B̊ whenever) B is open. So ∃ ǫ > 0, such

that (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ B. But since B ⊆ A, then (x − ǫ, x + ǫ) ⊆ A and it follows
that x ∈ Å.Therefore B ⊆ Å.
Unions and Intersections of Open and Closed Sets
Theorem:
Let {Gi } be an infinite collection of open sets and {Hi } an infinite collection of
closed sets. Then
∞
(a) ∪ Gi is an open (an arbitrary union of open sets is open)
i=1

19
 n
(b) ∩ Gi is open(finite intersection of open sets is open)
i=1
n
(c) ∪ Hi is closed (finite union of closed sets is closed)
i=1
∞
(d) ∩ Hi is closed(arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed)
i=1
proof
∞ ∞
(a) We need to prove that if xǫ ∪ Gi then x is an interior point of ∪ Gi ,i.e
i=1 i=1
∞
∃ǫi > 0 such that (x − ǫi , x + ǫi ) ⊆ ∪ Gi .
i=1
∞
If xǫ ∪ Gi , then xǫGi for some i. Since Gi is open , x is an interior point of
i=1
Gi . So, ∃ǫi > 0 such that (x − ǫi , x + ǫi ) ⊆ Gi .T heref ore,
∞
(x − ǫi , x + ǫi ) ⊆ ∪ Gi .
i=1
n n n
(b) If ∩ Gi = ∅, then ∩ Gi is open since ∅ is open. Now let ∩ Gi 6= ∅ and let
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
xǫ ∩ Gi . Then xǫGi ∀i = 1, 2, ..., n, then ǫ > 0. So, (x − ǫi , x + ǫi ) ⊆ Gi ∀i =
i=1
1, 2, ..., n, .
Hence,

n
(x − ǫi , x + ǫi ) ⊆ ∩ Gi .
i=1

n
Therefore, x is an interior point of ∩ Gi and since x is an arbitrary point of
i=1
n n
∩ Gi , then ∩ Gi is open.
i=1 i=1
Remark: The intersection of an infinite number of open sets need not be open.
counterexample
in R,let Gn = (− n1 , n1 )nǫN,i.e
G1 = (−1, 1)
G2 = (− 12 , 12 )

G3 = (− 13 , 13 )
.
.
.
∞
Then Gn is open for each n=1,2,3,... However, ∩ Gi = {0}, which is not open.
i=1

20
(c) Exercise
(d) Exercise
Closure of a set
Let E ⊂ R and let E’ be the set of all limit points of E. Then the closure of E
is the set E = E ∪ E ′
NB:E is the intersection of all closed super sets of E. So, E is closed.

A point in the closure of E is called an adherent point of E. Thus, if x is a

adherent point of E, then x ∈ E or x ∈ E ′
Example
1. (a, b) = [a, b]
2. Q = R
3. {x} = {x}
4. If E=[-1,0), then E’=[-1,0] and E = E ∪ E ′ =[-1,0]
5. If F = (0, 1] ∪ {3}, then F’=[0,1] and F = F ∪ F ′ =[0, 1] ∪ {3}
Theorem
Let E ⊂ R then
(a) E is closed
(b)E = E if and only if E is closed
(c) If E ⊂ R where F is closed, E ⊂ F

Proof
(a) Let x ∈ R and x ∈
/ E. Then x ∈ / E ′ so ∃ δ > 0, (x−δ, x+δ)∩E = ∅.
/ E and x ∈
The complement of E is therefore open. Hence E is closed.
(b) Suppose E = E By (a) E is closed . Thus E is closed. Conversely, suppose
E is closed then E ⊆ E and E = E ∪ E ′ = E
(c) Suppose F is closed and F ⊃ E then F ⊃ F ′ and F ′ ⊃ E ′ . Hence F ⊃ E’
therefore, F ⊃ E ∪ E ′ = E
Nb By (a) and (c) of the above theorem E is the smallest closed subset of R

21
that contains E.
Example
Every singleton set {x} is closed since {x} = {x}.
Boundary
Let A ⊂ R the boundary of A , denoted bdry(A) is the set of points x ∈ R such
that every nbhd of x contains at least one point of A and at least one point not

in A . Alternatively, bdry(A) is the set A r Å. ie the set of points in the closure
of A not belonging to the interior of A.
An element in the boundary of A is called is called a boundary of A.
Example
1. bdry((0,5))=bdry([0,5))=bdry((0,5])=bdry([0,5])={0,5}
2. bdry(∅) = ∅
3. bdry(Z) = Z
NB
1. bdry(A) is closed
2. bdry(A)=bdry(Ac )
Theorem
A set is closed iff it contains all its boundary points
Corollary

A set is open iff it contains none its boundary points.

Dense sets
Let A ⊂ R then A is said to be dense (in R) if for each open interval (a,b),
A ∩ (a, b) 6= ∅. More generally suppose A, B ⊂ R . If every open interval that
intersects B also intersects A, we say that A is dense in B.
Example
1. The set Q of rational numbers in dense in R since for any interval (a,b) in
R, Q∩(a, b) 6= ∅

22
2. Zis not dense in R since ( 21 , 34 ) ∩ Z = ∅
3. N is not dense in [Link] (−1, 0) ∩ N = ∅
4. N is dense in Z since (−1, 1) ∩ Z 6= ∅ but (−1, 1) ∩ N = ∅
NB a is dense in B if every point of B is a limit point of A, or a point of A, or
both.
definition

Let A ⊂ R then A is said to be nowhere dense in R provided every open I

contains an open sub interval J such that A ∩ J = ∅ . In other word, A is
nowhere dense if Acontains no open interval.
Example
1. Any finite set is nowhere dense.
2. N is nowhere dense.
3. The set { n1 : n ∈ N} is nowhere dense.
4. Any finite union of nowhere dense sets is nowhere dense.
5. A countable intersection of nowhere dense sets need not be nowhere dense.

11 Series and sequences

Sequences
A sequence is a function whose domain is a set of natural number N and the
range is a subset of R.
Example
f (n) = ( n1 ) for n ∈ N is a sequence. Its range is the {1, 21 , 13 , ..., 0}. In general
the sequence (Xn )n∈N can be written as {x1 , x2 , ..., xn }, x1 , x2 , ..., xn are called
the terms of the sequence.
Definition
Let (Xn )n∈N be a sequence of elements of X. We say that the sequence (Xn )n∈N
converges in X if ∃ an element x ∈ X such that for each ǫ > 0, ∃ a positive

23
integer N (ǫ) such that d(Xn , x) < ǫ ∀n > N (ǫ). We then write Xn −→ x as
n −→ ∞ or lim Xn = x
n−→∞
Remark
1. In (R, d) where d is the usual metric we say that a sequence (Xn )n∈N converges
to x if every ǫ > 0, ∃ N (ǫ) ∈ Z+ such that |Xn − x| < ǫ ∀ n > N (ǫ).
2. The positive N (ǫ) depends on the choice of the positive number epsilon (ǫ)

for example (Xn )n∈N ={1, 12 , 13 , ..., 0} then lim 1

=0
n−→∞ n

Now for each ǫ > 0 we can find N (ǫ) such that |Xn − 0| < ǫ ∀ n > N (ǫ). Let
1 1
ǫ= 6 then |Xn − 0| < 6 ∀ n > N (ǫ) . We can choose N (ǫ) = 6
A sequence is said to diverge if it does not converge.
Example
Show that the sequence Xn = 1 + (−1)n n12 n ∈ N converges to 1
solution
Let ǫ > 0 be given then |Xn − 1| =|1 + (−1)n n12 − 1| < ǫ
=⇒ |(−1)n n12 | < ǫ
1
=⇒ n2 <ǫ
1
=⇒ n2 > ǫ
1
=⇒ n > √
ǫ
1
choose N (ǫ) = √
ǫ
+ 1 then |Xn − 1|< ǫ ∀ n > N (ǫ).

Example
Show that the sequence converges
Lim 1 =0
n−→∞ n

solution
Let ǫ > 0 be given then |Xn − 0| =| n1 | < ǫ
1
=⇒ n <ǫ
1
=⇒ n > ǫ
1
Choose N (ǫ) = ǫ + 1 then |Xn − 0|< ǫ ∀ n > N (ǫ).

24
Definition
A sequence (Xn )n∈N is said to be bounded if its range is bounded.
Example 

 1
 if n is even
Consider the sequence defined by Xn =

 0
 if n is odd
The range of Xn is the set {0, 1}. The range is bounded, therefore the sequence
is bounded.
Theorem
Let (Xn )n∈N be a sequence on elements of X. If (Xn )n∈N converges in X, then
its limit is unique
proof
Let Xn −→ x and Xn −→ y and (Xn )n∈N be a sequence on elements of X.
ǫ
For each ǫ > 0 ∃ N1 (ǫ), N2 (ǫ) such that d(Xn , x) < 2 ∀n > N1 (ǫ),d(Xn , y) <
ǫ
2 ∀n > N2 (ǫ). Using the triangle inequality we have d(x, y) ≤ d(Xn , x) +
∂(Xn , y). Put N o = max{N1 (ǫ), N2 (ǫ)}. then d(x, y) ≤ d(Xn , x) + d(Xn , y) <
ǫ ǫ
2 + 2 = ǫ ∀ n > N o. Since ǫ > 0 is an arbitrary small, then d(x, y) = 0
=⇒ x = y. Hence the limit is unique.
Theorem
Let (Xn )n∈N be a convergent sequence in X then (Xn )n∈N is bounded.
proof
Let Xn −→ x, then for any ǫ > 0 ∃ a positive integer N such that ∂(Xn , x) <
ǫ ∀ n ≥ N . Without the loose of generality take ǫ = 1 then d(Xn , x) < 1 ∀ n ≥
N . Let r = max d(X1 , x), d(X2 , x), d(X3 , x), ..d(Xn−1 , x) . Then d(Xn , x) <
r ∀ n ∈ N. Hence the sequence is bounded.
Remark
From the results above, convergence implies boundness but the converse need

25
 

 1
 if n is even
not be true. For example the sequence Xn = as we saw

 0
 if n is odd
earlier this sequence is bounded but not convergent for it oscillates between 0
and 1.
Theorem
Let X be a set , S a subset of X and x be a limit point of S, then there is a
sequence (Xn )n∈N of element of S such that Xn −→ x.
Since x is a limit point of S for each positive integer n, we can find a point
1
Xn ∈ S such that d(Xn , x) < n. Thus we get a sequence (Xn )n∈N of points Xn
belonging to S. Let ǫ > 0 be given we can find a positive integer No such that
1
n < ǫ ∀ n > N o. Thus d(Xn , x) < ǫ ∀ n > No such that Xn −→ x.
Subsequence
Let (Xn )n∈N be a sequence of X. Then (Xnk )n∈N is called a subsequence of
(Xn )n∈N .
For example if for (Xn )n∈N = x1 , x2 , x3 , ... .We choose a subsequence consisting
of elements in even position then we have x1,2 = x2 , x2,2 = x4 ,x3,2 = x6 ,...
ie

(Xnk )n∈N = x1.2 , x2.2 , x3.2 , ....

= x2 , x4 , x6 , ....

If Xnk −→ x then x is called subsequence limit of Xn

Theorem
A sequence (Xn )n∈N converges to x iff every subsequence (Xnk )n∈N converges
to x.
Proof

Let (Xn )n∈N converges to x. We show that every subsequence of (Xnk )n∈N of

26
(Xn )n∈N converge to x. Without loss of generality let the metric space X = R .
Let (Xnk )n∈N be any subsequence of (Xn )n∈N as Xn −→ x, then for every ǫ > 0
∃ N (ǫ) such that |Xn − x| < ǫ ∀ n > N (ǫ). Take nk > N (ǫ) then |Xnk − x| <
ǫ ∀ nk > N (ǫ) hence Xnk −→ x. Since (Xnk )n∈N is any subsequence of (Xn )n∈N ,
it follows that every subsequence of (Xn )n∈N converges to x whenever Xn −→ x.
Conversely, let every subsequence of (Xnk )n∈N converge to x, then Xn −→ x

for (Xn )n∈N is a subsequence of itself.

Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem
Every bounded sequence in R has a subsequence that converges to some point
in R .
Cauchy sequence
Let (Xn )n∈N be a sequence of X, then (Xn )n∈N is called a Cauchy sequence if
for each ǫ > 0 ∃ N (ǫ) ∈ N such that d(Xm , Xn ) < ǫ ∀ m, n > N (ǫ)
Example
Show that a sequence ( 21n )n∈N in R is a Cauchy sequence.
solution
We need to show that given ǫ > 0 ∃ an integer N (ǫ) such that |Xm − Xn | <
1
ǫ ∀ m, n > N (ǫ). Let m=n+p, p ∈ N then |Xm −Xn | = |Xn+p −Xn | =| 2n+p − 21n |
1 1 1 1
= 2n | 2p − 1| < ǫ=⇒ 2n ( 2p − 1) < ǫ Since ( 21p − 1) < 1 it is enough to show that
1 In( 1ǫ )
2n < ǫ =⇒ 2n > 1ǫ =⇒ n > In2
In( 1ǫ )
choose N (ǫ) = 1 + In2 then ∃ an integer N (ǫ) such that ∀ m, n > N (ǫ).
|Xm − Xn | < ǫ =⇒( 21n )n∈N in R is a Cauchy sequence.
Theorem
Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
proof
Suppose Xn → x, then for every ǫ > 0 ∃ an integer N (ǫ) ∈ N such that |Xn −
x| < 2ǫ ∀ n ≥ N (ǫ) take m > n,then we have |Xm − x| < 2ǫ ∀m ≥ N (ǫ) by the

27
triangle inequality |Xm − Xn | = |Xm − x + x − Xn | ≤ |Xm − x| + |Xn − x| <
ǫ ǫ
2 + 2 = ǫ. Hence
|Xm − Xn | < ǫ ∀m, n > N (ǫ) . Thus (Xn )n∈N is a Cauchy sequence.
Theorem
Every Cauchy sequence is bounded.
Proof

Let ǫ = 1, then there exists N ∈ N such that |Xn − Xm | < 1 for all n, m ≥ N .
Choose a k ≥ N and observe that |Xn | = |Xn − Xk + Xk | ≤ |Xn − Xk | + |Xk | <
1 + Xk Let M = max{|s1 |, |s2 |, . . . .|sN |, |sk | + 1}. Then {Xn } < M for all
n ≥ N and therefore,(Xn )n∈N is bounded.
Monotonic sequence
lim sup, lim inf
Recall that convergence of a sequence (Xn )n∈N implies boundedness but bound-
edness of a sequence (Xn )n∈N doesn’t imply converges of (Xn )n∈N
However convergence and boundedeness do turns out to be equivalent for mono-
tonic sequence of real number.
Definition
Let (Xn )n∈N be a sequence of real numbers then we say that
a) (Xn )n∈N is monotonic increasing Xn ↑ if Xn ≤ Xn+1 ∀n ǫ X

b) (Xn )n∈N is monotonic decreasing Xn ↓ if Xn ≥ Xn+1 or Xn+1 ≤ Xn e.g

1
n = 1, 21 , 13 , 41 ...
c)We say that a sequence (Xn )n∈N is monotonic if it is neither monotonic in-
creasing or monotonic decreasing.
Theorem
Let (Xn )n∈N be a monotonic sequence . Then (Xn )n∈N is convergent iff (Xn )n∈N
is bounded.
Lim sup and lim inf

28
Definition

Let (Xn )n∈N be a sequence of real numbers. Let X k = X k = sup {Xk , Xk+1 ...}
= sup {Xk } k = 1, 2, 3...
Then we get a sequence
(Xk )k∈N
Also let Xk = inf {Xk, Xk+1 ...}

= inf{Xn }k=1,2,3...
Then we get the sequence

Xk k∈N for the sequence. For

X k k∈N we have
X 1 = sup(X1 , X2 .....
X 2 = sup(X2 , X3 .....
X 3 = sup(X3 , X4 .....
Thus X 1 ≥ X 2 ≥ X 3 ≥ .....
hence Xn ↓ i.e the sequence of supremum is monotonic decreasing for the se-
quence of the infimum {Xk }k∈N
we have X 1 = inf {X1, X2 ....
X 2 = inf {X2, X3 ....
X 3 = inf {X3, X4 ....

Thus X 1 ≤ X 2 ≤ X 3 . Hence X n ↑ i.e the sequence of infimum is monotonic in-

[Link] inf X n and sup X n are denoted by lim sup (Xn ) and lim inf (Xn )
respectively. Also lim sup (Xn ) and lim inf (Xn ) are denoted by Lim (Xn ) and
n→∞

Lim (Xn ) respectively. ie Lim (Xn ) =inf(sup(Xk ) and Lim (Xn ) =sup(inf(Xk )
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
for n ≥ k k ∈ N.

29