Introduction to Aviation Systems

Electrical Systems
Prepared* by
Dr. Hamid Alper Oral
Yildiz Technical University
Faculty of Applied Science
Department of Aviation Electronics

* DISCLAIMER These notes, most of which copied from other references. are for educational purposes only and they are not meant to gain any credit or profit.
Electrical
Systems

Check out the

placement paying
attention to the
weight distribution.
kVA to KW conversion
• For Direct Current the two are the same

• For Alternative current however they are different due to alternating

nature of the voltage and current values in AC

• kW is the unit of real power and kVA is a unit of apparent power (or
real power plus re-active power)

1 Phase Calculation: kV * A * PF = kW

3 Phase Calculation: kV * A * sqrt(3) * PF = kW

where PF is power factor (varying between 0,8 and 1)

Power Requirements
• DC:
• Due to limitations of feeder size the current is limited to 400 amps. For a 28
VDC, this means that maximum power per channel cannot exceed 12 kW. This is
sufficient for General Aviation aircraft (GA) and for smaller business jets.

• AC:

• AirBus A380: 150 kVA per channel

• Boeing 787 : 500 kVA per channel

Electrical Systems
Electrical Power Evolution:
Electrically Powered Power Flying Controls
Centralized Aircraft Aircraft
Hydraulic Systems AC Electrical System

Flight Control Actuators Flight Control Actuators Avro Vulcan B2

Handley Page Victor V-Bomber Vickers VC10

 AC vs. DC (Tesla vs. Edison)
• AC operates at a higher voltage (115 VAC vs. 28 VDC)

• Higher voltage means the requirement for better

standards of insulation

• However it also means better power transmission

• The higher the voltage, the lower the current

• the lower the current, the lower are the losses

• Voltage drops are proportional to the current
• Power losses are proportional to the current squared

• the lower the current, the lighter are the harnesses to conduct the
current
Introduction of High Power AC Generation
Systems to a Fighter Application
REQUIREMENT:
GENERATE ALTERNATIVE CURRENT AT
CONSTANT FREQUENCY

TECHNOLOGY AVAILABLE IN
1960’s to the late 70’s:
A GENERATOR RUNNING AT
CONSTANT SPEED
 Introduction of High Power AC Generation Systems to a
Fighter Application: An Early Solution (1960’s)
REQUIREMENT:
GENERATE ALTERNATIVE CURRENT AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY
CHALLENGE:
AIRCRAFT ENGINE SPEED VARIES OVER APPROXIMATELY 2:1 SPEED RATIO
(FULL POWER SPEED : FLIGHT IDLE SPEED)
SOLUTION: CONSTANT
CSD (CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE) FREQUENCY 115 VAC @ 400 Hz
AİRCRAFT AC
GBOX

CSD
ENGINE GENERATOR
McDonnell Douglas F-4
VARYING SPEED CONSTANT SPEED
Phantom
 CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE
Constant speed drive consists essentially
of a hydraulic transmission with
mechanical controls governing the output CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE
rotation speed. The
transmission is capable of either adding
to or subtracting from the speed received
from the gearbox in order to
provide constant output speed to keep
the generator on frequency.

The hydraulic transmission is mounted

between the AC alternator and
the aircraft engine. Hydraulic oil or
engine oil is used
to operate the hydraulic transmission,
which creates a constant output speed
to drive the alternator. ...
The CSD employs a hydraulic pump
assembly, a mechanical speed control,
and a hydraulic drive.

These are complex hydro-mechanical devices which by their very nature

are not highly reliable. Therefore the introduction of constant frequency
AC generation systems was not without accompanying reliability
problems, particularly on fighter aircraft where engine throttle settings
are changed very frequently throughout the mission.
 Introduction of High Power AC Generation Systems
to a Fighter Application: Advanced Solution (1990’s)
REQUIREMENT:
GENERATE ALTERNATIVE CURRENT AT CONSTANT FREQUENCY
CHALLENGE:
AIRCRAFT ENGINE SPEED VARIES OVER APPROXIMATELY 2:1 SPEED RATIO
(FULL POWER SPEED : FLIGHT IDLE SPEED)
SOLUTION: 200 VAC @ 400 Hz
HIGH POWER SOLID STATE SWITCHING TECHNOLOGY

AİRCRAFT AC
GBOX

ENGINE GENERATOR
VARYING SPEED CONSTANT FREQUENCY Boeing F/A -18 Super Hornet
More Electrical Aircraft
(Military)
More Electrical Aircraft
(Civil)

ATRU: Auto-Transformer Rectifier Unit

ATU: Auto-Transformer Unit
TRU: Transformer Rectifier Unit
DC Power Generation
- DC generators are self exciting , as they contain rotating
electro-magnets that generate electrical power.

- A device called commutator works to rectify the output

voltage from a sine wave into a smoothed DC voltage
AC Power Generation
• An AC system uses a
generator to generate a
sine wave of a given
voltage and, in most
cases, of a constant
frequency.
• This AC generator may be
regarded as three
machines sharing the
same shaft.
 Modern AC Electrical Power Generation Types

Location of the
generation system
components

CF: Constant Frequency

IDG: Integrated Drive Generator
Used by Military aircraft in US
VSCF: Variable Speed CF
VF: Variable Frequency
• Electrical power level
increasing
• Diversity of electrical power
generations methods
introduces new aircraft
system issues
• B777 VSCF and MD-90 VSCF
converters, being located in
the airframe, increase the
ECS requirements since
waste heat is dissüpated in
the airframe whereas the
previous IDD solution
rejected heat into engine oil
system.
• Also adotion of VF have
complicated the motor load
and power conversion
requirements. The adoption
of 270 VDC systems by US
military has necessitated the
development of a family of
protection devices since
conventional circuit brakers
cannot be used at such high
voltages.
Constant Frequency / Integrated Drive
Generator (CF/IDG) Generation
CSD

The drawback of the hydro-mechanical CSD is that it needs to be correctly maintained in terms of oil charge level
and oil cleanliness. Also to maintain high reliability frequent overhauls may be necessary.
That said, the IDG is used to power the majority of civil transport aircraft today.
 Variable Frequency
(VF) Generation
• The simplest and most reliable form of power
generation
• The regulated to 115 VAC, suffers a frequency
variation typically from 380 to 720 Hz.
• This wide band VF power has an effect on frequency
sensitive aircraft loads, the most obvious being the
effect on AC electric motors that are used in many
aircraft systems. There can therefore be a penalty to
be paid in the performance of other aircraft systems
such as fuel, ECS and hydraulics.
• Major airframe manufacturers such as Airbus and
Boeing place the burden upon equipment suppliers
to ensure that major electrical components perform
to specification throughout the anticipated
frequency range and the aircraft power quality –
such as power factor – is not adversely affected.
 Variable Speed Constanf Frequency (VSCF)
Generation
1. DC link: In the DC link the raw power is converted to
an intermediate DC power stage – the DC link –
before being electronically converted to three phase
AC power. Not as reliable as CF or VF power
generation.

2. Cycloconverter: The cycloconverter uses a different

principle. Six phases are generated at relatively high
frequencies in excess of 3000 Hz and the solid state
devices switch between these multiple phases in a
predetermined and carefully controlled manner. The
effect is to electronically commutate the input and
provide three phases of constant frequency 400 Hz
power. Though this appears to be a complex
technique it is in fact quite elegant and
cycloconverter systems have been successfully used
on military aircraft in the US.
Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) – DC Link
200 VAC @ 400 Hz

AIRCRAFT
ENGINE
GEARBOX

SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC
Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) – CycloConverter
The brushless, self-excited generator comprises three AC machines:
• Permanent magnet generator
• Exciter generator
• Main generator
Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) – Switched
Reluctance Machines
• In CF applications the generator is
combined with a CSD unit which
has reliability and maintenance
limitations
• In VSCF applications the generator
becomes complex since it is
effectively three generators on the
same shaft with multiple sets of
windings and rotating diode packs,
hence with an upper speed limit
and weight constraint
• Hence Switched Reluctance (SR)
machine is the most recent
potential solution.
• A solid rotor and robust
stator.
• A simple machine.
• Power electronic is needed
but does not have to spin.
 DC System Power Generation Control per MIL-STD-704D
• Voltage Regulation current circuit breakers or relays. These devices
DC systems are limited to around 400 amps effectively sense reverse current and switch
the generator out of circuit, thus preventing
or 12 kW per channel maximum for two any ensuing damage
reasons: 2. Overvoltage protection
1. The size of conductors and switchgear to carry Overvoltage protection senses failure
the necessary current becomes prohibitive conditions and opens the line contactor taking
2. The brush wear on brushed DC generators the generator offline
becomes excessive with resulting maintenance 3. Undervoltage protection
costs if these levels are exceeded In a single generator system under voltage is a
• Parallel Operation similar fault condition as the reverse current
situation. However, in a multi-generator
• Also known as an equalizing circuit configuration with paralleling by means of an
• Provides ‘no-break’ or uninterrupted power in equalizing circuit, the situation is different.
case of engine or generator failure for a number Here an under voltage protection capability is
of sensitive instruments and navigation devices essential as the equalizing circuit is always
onboard aircraft. trying to raise the output of a lagging
generator; in this situation the under voltage
• Protection Functions protection is an integral part of the parallel
1. Reverse Current load sharing function
This is usually achieved by means of reverse
AC Power Generation Control
• Voltage Regulation: Frequency-wild or constant frequency (Integrated
Drive Generator – IDG) solutions are available
• Parallel Operation: Required for «no brake» power
• Supervisory and Protection Functions
• Over voltage
• Under voltage
• Under/over excitation
• Under/over frequency
• Differential current protection
• Correct phase rotation
Primary Power Distribution
Typical Civil Aircraft example:

BTB : Bus Tie Braker

ELCU : Electronic Load Control Unit
GCB : Generator Control Braker
TRU : Transformer Rectifier Unit

Boeing 777-300
Primary power
distribution:
• P100 – Left
Primary Power
Panel distributes
and protects the
left primary loads
• P200 – Right
Primary Power
Panel distributes
and protects the
right primary loads
• P300 – Auxiliary
Power Panel
distributes and
protects the
auxiliary primary
loads Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
 Secondary Power Distribution – Power Switching
Power switching

High power levels → High power electromagnetic devices:

Contactors
Used both for AC and DC
Magnetically latch and held in a preferred state until a
signal is applied to change the state
A signal can be applied continuouly to hold the contacts
closed and removal causes the contacts to open

Currents below 20 amps → Relays

Works in similar fashion
Lighter, simpler and less expensive
Used for secondary aircraft loads and services

Lower currents → Simple switches

Indication of device status required BTB
ELCU
:
:
Bus Tie Braker
Electronic Load Control Unit
Manually operated by crew or other physical means GCB
TRU
:
:
Generator Control Braker
Transformer Rectifier Unit

Travel limit switch, temperature switch, pressure switch

Secondary
Power
Distribution
Secondary power distribution
• P110 – Left Power
Management Panel
distributes and protects
power, and controls loads
associated with the left
channel
• P210 – Right Power
Management Panel
distributes and protects
power, and controls loads
associated with the right
channel
• P310 – Standby Power
Management Panel
distributes and protects
power, and controls loads
associated with the standby
channel
• P320 – Ground
Servicing/Handling Panel
distributes and protects
power associated with
ground handling
Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
Power Contactors/Brakers for Power Switching
TYPICAL SMART

In-built current sensing coils that enable the current

flowing in each of the three phases to be measured.
Associated electronics allow the device trip characteristics
to be more closely matched to those of the load.
Load Protection
Circuit brakers
• Protects the circuit against the electrical overload
• Works like a fuse or a current limiter
• Once tripped it could be activated again by a button
• However it may trip again if the overload condition continues

Solid State Power Controllers

• Provide protecion of the circuit as well as switching power with mo
moving parts
• Available for DC loads below 22.5 amps
• Expensive compared to the circuit brakers but more reliable
• Advantageous especially for high duty cycle applications
 Generic Aircraft AC Electrical System
Comprises of the following stages:
• Power generation
• Primary power distribution
and protection
• Power conversion and energy
storage
• Secondary power distribution
and protection
BTB : Bus Tie Braker
ELCU : Electronic Load Control Unit
GCB : Generator Control Braker
TRU : Transformer Rectifier Unit
Power Conversion and Energy Storage

BTB : Bus Tie Braker

ELCU : Electronic Load Control Unit
GCB : Generator Control Braker
TRU : Transformer Rectifier Unit

Auto Transformers
Battery Chargers
Batteries An electrical storage medium independent of the primary generation sources

Battery Functions
• To assist in damping transient loads in the DC system

• To provide power in system startup modes when no other

power source is available

• To provide a short-term high-integrity source during

emergency conditions while alternative/backup sources of
power are being brought on line
Electrical Loads

• Motors and actuation

• Lighting services
• Heating services
• Subsystem controllers and avionics
systems
• Ground Power
Motors and Actuation
• Linear actuation: electrical position actuators for
engine control; trim actuators for flight control
systems
• Rotary actuation: electrical position actuators
for flap/slat operation
• Control valve operation: electrical operation of
fuel control valves; hydraulic control valves; air
control valves; control valves for ancillary
systems
• Starter motors: provision of starting for engine, APU and other systems that require assistance to reach
self-sustaining operation
• Pumps: provision of motive force for fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps; pumping for auxiliary systems
• Gyroscope motors: provision of power to run gyroscopes for flight instruments and autopilots; in modern
avionics systems gyroscopic sensors arenincreasingly likely to be solid state and therefore will not require
an AC supply
• Fan motors: provision of power to run cooling fans for the provision of air to passengers or equipment
 Lighting

Lighting may be
powered by 28 VDC
or by 26 VAC
provided by
autotransformer
from the main AC
buses.
Heating
• Electrically powered anti-icing or de-icing systems
(tailplane, fin leading edges, intake cowls, propellers and
spinners)
• Consumes many tens of kVAs
• Does not have to be frequency stable hence easier
to generate and cheaper
• Require controllers to time, cycle and switch the
heating current between heater elements
• for optimum use
• To avoid local overheating

• Windscreen heating
• A dedicated controller maintains the temperature
Subsystem Controllers and Avionics Systems
• Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) which permit rapid removal should a fault occur
• Many of the aircraft subsystem controllers are now packaged into similar LRUs due to
increased complexity and functionality and for the same reasons of rapid replacement
following a failure
• These LRUs may require DC or AC power depending upon their function and modes of
operation
• Many may utilize dedicated internal power supply units to convert the aircraft power to
levels better suited to the electronics that require ±15 VDC and +5 VDC.
• There are many of them and a significant proportion may be critical to the safe
operation of the aircraft; hence two important factors arise:
• first, the need to provide independence of function by distribution of critical LRUs across
several aircraft busbars, powered by both DC and AC supplies.
• Secondly, the need to provide adequate sources of emergency power such that, should a dire
emergency occur, the aircraft has sufficient power to supply critical services to support a safe
return and landing.
Emergency Power Generation
• The aircraft battery offers a short-term power storage capability,
typically up to 30 minutes
• The operation of twin-engined passenger aircraft on Extended Twin
OPerationS (ETOPS) flights now means that the aircraft has to be able
to operate on one engine while up to 180 minutes from an alternative
or diversion airfield: The three standard methods of providing backup
power on civil transport aircraft are:
• Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
• Backup power converters
• Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs)
Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
• RAT is deployed when most of the conventional
power generation system has failed or is
unavailable for some reason.
• The RAT is an air-driven turbine, normally stowed
in the aircraft ventral or nose section that is
extended either automatically or manually when
the emergency commences. The passage of air
over the turbine is used to power a small
emergency generator of limited capacity, usually
enough to power the crew’s essential flight
instruments and a few other critical services.
• Typical RAT generator sizing may vary from 5 to 15kVA depending upon the aircraft. The RAT also powers a
small hydraulic power generator for similar hydraulic system emergency power provision.
• Once deployed then the RAT remains extended for the duration of the flight and cannot be restowed
without maintenance action on the ground.
• The RAT is intended to furnish the crew with sufficient power to fly the aircraft while attempting to restore
the primary generators or carry out a diversion to the nearest airfield. It is not intended to provide
significant amounts of power for a lengthy period of operation.
Back Up Converters
• The requirements for
ETOPS have led to the
use of backup converters
• Backup generators are
driven by the same
engine accessory gearbox
but are quite
independent of the main
IDGs
• The backup generators
are VF and therefore
experience significant
frequency variation as
engine speed varies.
PM Generators/ALTERNATORS
• PMGs may be
single phase or
multi-phase
devices.
• The more
phases used
the easier the
task to convert
the power to
regulated 28
VDC.
PM: PERMANENT MAGNET
PMG/PMA’s are used to provide dual independent on-engine supplies to each lane
of the FADEC
Recent Systems Developments
• Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
• Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) –
Cycloconverter
• 270 VDC systems
• More-Electric Aircraft (MEA)
Simplified F-18E/F electrical power system
A380 Power Generation Overview
A380 AC Electrical Power Architecture
 A380 DC Electrical Power Architecture

BCRU: Battery Charger Regulatory Units

ESS: Essential
TRU: Transformer Rectifier Unit