Oceanography

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 Oceans
• The term ocean is derived from the Greek word “Oceanus” which
means enormous river encircling the earth.
• There are five major oceans in the world- Pacific ocean, Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean.
 Pacific Ocean
• It is the world’s largest ocean. It is bigger than all the continents put
together (covers one-third of the earth’s surface area). The Pacific ocean
separates North America, South America from Asia and Australia.
• Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan named the ocean, Pacific
Ocean which means “peaceful”, because he felt the ocean to be calm.
• The International Date Line passes through the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific
Ocean joins the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Seaway (Torres
strait and strait of Malacca).
• Average depth of this ocean is about 4280 m.
• The Mariana trench located in the western Pacific Ocean is the deepest
oceanic trench in the world.
Atlantic Ocean
• It is the second largest ocean of the world. It covers about 20% of the earth’s
surface area.
• Its name is derived from the Greek mythology- Atlantis Thalassa, meaning
Sea of Atlas.
• It is an elongated S- shaped water body between Africa, Europe, Arctic
Ocean, Americas and Southern Ocean. Average depth of this ocean is about
3,646 m.
• Deepest trench in the Atlantic ocean is Puerto Rico Trench (〜8,376 m).
• The north Atlantic ocean was formed by the breakup of the supercontinent
Pangaea and the south Atlantic ocean was formed when the Gondwanaland
broke in the geological past.
• The largest island- Greenland is located in the Atlantic ocean.
• The Sargasso sea, the only sea in the world without any shore, is present in
the Atlantic ocean.
• In the south-east, the Atlantic ocean merges into the Indian ocean.
 Indian Ocean
• It is the third largest ocean in the world. It is named after India which
makes up much of its northern border.
• It lies in the eastern hemisphere. It covers about 19.8 % of water on the
earth’s surface.
• It lies between Africa, Southern Ocean, Australia and Asia.
• It is landlocked in the northern hemisphere (closed ocean) and is the
warmest ocean in the world.
• The largest island in the Indian ocean is Madagascar (fourth largest island in
the world).
• Sundra trench/ Java trench (approx. 7450 m) is the deepest trench in the
Indian ocean.
• Marginal seas in the Indian Ocean are extremely important for trade,
providing major sea routes that connect the Middle East, East Asia, Africa,
Europe and the Americas. A marginal sea is a section of an ocean partially
enclosed by an island, a peninsula, or an archipelago (group of islands). They
are shallower than the ocean and have close proximity to land.
Southern Ocean
• Also known as the Antarctic Ocean or Austral Ocean, comprises the
southernmost waters of the world ocean.
• It is the fourth largest ocean/ second smallest ocean in the world,
located south of 60°S latitude and encircling Antarctica.
• It shares its northern boundary (largest boundary) with the Atlantic,
Indian and Pacific Ocean. This ocean is known for its turbulent waters.
• The Drake Passage is the body of water between South America’s Cape
Horn (Chile) and the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica. It is known
for its violent storms. It connects the southwestern part of the Atlantic
ocean (Scotia sea) with the southeastern part of the Pacific ocean and
extends into the Southern Ocean.
Arctic Ocean
• The Arctic Ocean is shallower and smaller than the other four oceans.
It lies entirely within the Arctic Circle.
• It covers about 1.3% of the earth’s water surface area.
• It is surrounded by Eurasia and North America. It is completely
covered by ice in winter.
• Its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans.
• The Bering Strait connects the Arctic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean
while the Greenland Sea, Labrador Sea and Norwegian Sea connect it
with the Atlantic Ocean.
• The Molloy Deep, 5557 m (Molloy Hole) in the Fram Strait (within the
Greenland sea) is the deepest point in the Arctic Ocean.
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Marginal Seas

• In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea partially enclosed by islands,

archipelagos, or peninsulas.
• Some of the major marginal seas include the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea,
Bay of Bengal, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of
Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four of the Siberian
Seas (Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian).
• The primary differences between marginal seas and open oceans are
associated with depth and proximity to landmasses.
• Marginal seas, which are generally shallower than open oceans, are
more influenced by human activities, river runoff, climate, and water
circulation.
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Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean

• Barents Sea
• The Irish Sea
Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean

• Argentine Sea
• Caribbean Sea
• English Channel
• Gulf of Mexico
• Hudson Bay
• Irish Sea
• Labrador Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• North Sea
• Norwegian Sea
• Scotia Sea
Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean

• Andaman Sea
• Arabian Sea
• Bay of Bengal
• Java Sea
• Persian Gulf
• Red Sea
• Sea of Zanj
Marginal seas of the Mediterranean Sea

• Major conflict zones lie on the east of Mediterranean. Also

recent refugee crisis is constantly in news. Hence the locations from
the region are important for prelims.
• Adriatic Sea
• Aegean Sea
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
• Bering Sea
• Celebes Sea
• Coral Sea
• East China Sea
• Philippine Sea
• Sea of Japan
• Sea of Okhotsk
• South China Sea (another important conflict zone)
• Tasman Sea (between Australia and New Zealand)
• Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)
Other seas

• The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined as a marginal sea

• Caspian Sea is also sometimes defined as a marginal sea, and also the
Dead Sea.
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Water Circulation in Marginal Seas

• Water circulation patterns in marginal seas depend largely on shape

of the sea, fresh-water input (e.g., river runoff and precipitation) and
evaporation.
• If river runoff and precipitation exceed evaporation, as is the case in
the Black and Baltic Seas, the excess fresh water will tend to flow
seaward near the sea surface.
• If evaporation exceeds river runoff and precipitation, as in the
Mediterranean Sea, the marginal sea water becomes saltier, then
sinks and flows towards the less salty open ocean region.
Circulation Patterns in Major Marginal Seas
Black Sea and Baltic Sea
• The Black Sea and Baltic Sea basins both possess sills that restrict
subsurface water circulation.
• While the surface waters of the Black and Baltic Seas are able to flow
over the sills and introduce lower salinity water into the open ocean,
the flow of the saltier subsurface waters is blocked by these sills.
• This type of subsurface-water restriction often leads to stagnation,
which may eventually result in local oxygen depletion.
Mediterranean Sea

• The Mediterranean Sea, which is divided by a 400 meter sill into two
sub basins, is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of
Gibraltar, to the Black Sea via the Bosporus Strait, and to the Red Sea
via the manmade Suez Canal.
• Atlantic Ocean water enters this marginal sea through the Straits of
Gibraltar as a surface flow. This ocean water replaces a fraction of the
water that evaporates in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
• In Mediterranean Sea evaporation exceeds precipitation and hence
salinity increases.
Gulf of Mexico

• Compared to the Black, Baltic and Mediterranean Seas, the Gulf of

Mexico is a much less complex marginal sea.
• The Gulf of Mexico is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits
of Florida and the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatán Strait.
• In the northern Gulf of Mexico region, Mississippi River runoff
influences surface waters as far as 150 meters away from the shore,
resulting in salinities as low as 25.
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• A unique feature of the Gulf of Mexico’s surface circulation pattern is
the Loop Current, which results from the Caribbean Current entering
the Gulf of Mexico through the Yucatán Strait and upon arrival,
turning in a clockwise direction and “looping” around a warm “dome”
of Gulf of Mexico surface water [More under ocean currents].
Bays, gulfs, and Straits

• Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water bodies that are contained
within a larger body of water near land.
• These three water bodies are usually located at important points of
human activities; thus, conflicts with nature and neighbors are
common.
Bays

• A bay is a small body of water that is set off from a larger body of
water generally where the land curves inward.
• In simple words, bay is a water body surrounded on three sides by
land with the fourth side (mouth) wide open towards oceans. (In
Gulfs, the mouth is narrow).
• A bay is usually smaller and less enclosed than a gulf.
• Example: The Bay of Pigs (Cuba), Hudson Bay (Canada), Bay of Bengal
etc.
• An example of a bay at a river’s mouth is New York Bay, at the mouth
of the Hudson River (Hudson Estuary).
Gulfs

• A gulf is a large body of water, sometimes with a narrow mouth, that

is almost completely surrounded by land. The world’s largest gulf is
the Gulf of Mexico.
• Examples of other gulfs include the Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden
(between the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the Persian Gulf
(between Saudi Arabia and Iran).
• The Persian Gulf is important with respect to world energy because
petroleum is transported through its waters in oil tankers
Straits

• A strait is a narrow passageway of water, usually between continents or

islands, or between two larger bodies of water.
• The Strait of Gibraltar is probably the world’s most famous strait. It
connects the Atlantic Ocean on its west with the Mediterranean Sea on its
east.
• Two other well-known straits are the Strait of Bosporus and the Strait of
Hormuz.
• The Strait of Bosporus connects the Black Sea (from the north) and the
Sea of Marmara (from the south), and splits northwestern Turkey.
• The Strait of Hormuz is located at the southeastern end of the Persian
Gulf. It is a narrow waterway that can be (and has been) controlled to
prevent ships from sailing through the gulf.
Isthmus

• Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a strait. i.e., a narrow strip of land

connecting two larger land masses.
• Example: Isthmus of Panama and Isthmus of Suez.
Ocean Relief

• Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and

depositional processes and their interactions.
• Ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.
Major Ocean Relief Features

• Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:

[Link] continental shelf,
[Link] continental slope,
[Link] continental rise,
[Link] Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.
Minor Ocean Relief Features
• Ridges,Hills,
• Seamounts,
• Guyots,
• Trenches,
• Canyons,
• Island arcs,
• Submerged volcanoes .
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 Continental Shelf
• Continental Shelf is the gently sloping seaward extension of continental
plate.
• These extended margins of each continent are occupied by
relatively shallow seas and gulfs.
• Continental Shelf of all oceans together cover 7.5% of the total area of
the oceans..
• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
• The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of
sediments brought down by rivers, glaciers etc..
• Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the
continental shelves, become the source of fossil fuels [Petroleum].
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• Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia, Great Banks around
Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia and New
Guinea.
• Gradient of continental is of 1° or even less.
• The average width of continental shelves is between 70 – 80 km.
• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the
margins like the coasts of Chile, the west coast of Sumatra, etc.
[Ocean – Continent Convergence and Ocean – Ocean Convergence]
The shelf is formed mainly due to

[Link] of a part of a continent

[Link] rise in sea level
[Link] deposits brought down by rivers
Importance of continent shelves

[Link] food comes almost entirely from continental shelves;

[Link] provide the richest fishing grounds;
[Link] are potential sites for economic minerals [20% of the world
production of petroleum and gas comes from shelves. Polymetallic
nodules (manganese nodules; concentric layers of iron and
manganese hydroxides) etc. are good sources of various mineral ores
like manganese, iron copper, gold etc..]
 Continental Slope
• The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean
basins.
• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5
• It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off
into a steep slope.
• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
• The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth
and gives rise to continental rise.
• The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
Continental Rise

• The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.

• When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred
to as the continental rise.
• With increasing depth the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with
the abyssal plain.
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Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain

• Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
• These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world because
of terrigenous [denoting marine sediment eroded from the land] and
shallow water sediments that buries the irregular topography.
• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
• The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
 Oceanic Deeps or Trenches
• The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins (Depressions).
These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
• They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean – ocean
convergence and ocean continent convergence.
• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of
continental slopes and along island arcs.
•. The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an
almost continuous ring along the western and eastern margins of the
Pacific.
• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the
deepest trench with, a depth of more than 11 kilometres.
• As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in
the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges
• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains
separated by a large depression. [Divergent Boundary]
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some
even reach above the ocean’s surface.
• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest
mountain systems on earth.
• These ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the
form of steep-sided narrow mountains.
• These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide
evidence in support of the theory of Plate Tectonics.
• Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
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Abyssal Hills

• Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the

seafloor that does not reach the surface of the ocean. Seamounts are
volcanic in origin. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
• The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands
[Hotspot] in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
• Guyots: The flat topped mountains (seamounts) are known as guyots.
• Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean where
they are estimated to number around 10,000.
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Submarine Canyons

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• These are deep valleys, some comparable to the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado river.
• They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and
slopes, often extending from the mouths of large rivers.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best known canyon in the world.
Significance of Study of Oceanic Relief

• Ocean relief controls the motion of sea water.

• The oceanic movement in the form of currents, in turn, causes many
variations in both oceans and in atmosphere.
• The bottom relief of oceans also influences navigation and fishing.
Vertical & Horizontal Temperature Distribution
of Oceans

Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• The study of the temperature of the oceans is important for
determining the
[Link] of large volumes of water (vertical and horizontal ocean
currents),
[Link] and distribution of marine organisms at various depths of
oceans,
[Link] of coastal lands, etc.
Source of Heat in Oceans

• The sun is the principal source of energy (Insolation).

• The ocean is also heated by the inner heat of the ocean itself (earth’s
interior is hot. At the sea surface, the crust is only about 5 to 30 km
thick). But this heat is negligible compared to that received from sun.
 How does deep water marine organisms survive
in spite of absence of sunlight?
• Photic zone is only about few hundred meters. It depends on lot of
factors like turbidity, presence of algae etc..
• There are no enough primary producers below few hundred meters till
the ocean bottom.
• At the sea bottom, there are bacteria that make use of heat supplied by
earth’s interior to prepare food. So, they are the primary producers.
• Other organisms feed on these primary producers and subsequent
secondary producers.
• So, the heat from earth supports wide ranging deep water marine
organisms.
But the productivity is too low compared to ocean surface.
Why is diurnal range of ocean temperatures too
small?, Why oceans take more time to heat or
cool?
• The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower
than land due to vertical and horizontal mixing and high specific
heat of water.
• (More time required to heat up a Kg of water compared to heating
the same unit of a solid at same temperatures and with equal energy
supply).
The ocean water is heated by three processes.

[Link] of sun’s radiation.

[Link] conventional currents: Since the temperature of the earth
increases with increasing depth, the ocean water at great depths is
heated faster than the upper water layers. So, convectional oceanic
circulations develop causing circulation of heat in water.
[Link] is produced due to friction caused by the surface wind and the
tidal currents which increase stress on the water body.
The ocean water is cooled by

[Link] radiation (heat budget) from the sea surface takes place as the
solar energy once received is reradiated as long wave radiation
(terrestrial radiation or infrared radiation) from the seawater.
[Link] of heat between the sea and the atmosphere if there is
temperature difference.
[Link]: Heat is lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation
(atmosphere gains this heat in the form of latent heat of
condensation).
 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of
Oceans
• Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.
• Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and
radiation.
• Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
• The physical characteristics of the sea surface: Boiling point of the sea
water is increased in the case of higher salinity and vice versa [Salinity
increased == Boiling point increased == Evaporation decreased].
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• The presence of submarine ridges and sills [Marginal
Seas]: Temperature is affected due to lesser mixing of waters on the
opposite sides of the ridges or sills.
• The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally extensive seas in low
latitude regions have warmer surface water than longitudinally
extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea records higher temperature than
the longitudinally extensive Gulf of California].
• The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf, Bay etc.) in the low latitudes
record relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the
enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature than the
open seas.
• Local weather conditions such as cyclones.
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• Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern
hemisphere receive more heat due to their contact with larger extent of
land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
• Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean
currents: The winds blowing from the land towards the oceans (off-
shore winds-moving away from the shore) drive warm surface water
away from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below
(This happens near Peruvian Coast in normal years. El-Nino).
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• Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into
continents) pile up warm water near the coast and this raises the
temperature (This happens near the Peruvian coast during El Nino
event)(In normal years, North-eastern Australia and Western Indonesian
islands see this kind of warm ocean waters due to Walker Cell or Walker
Circulation).
• Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas
while the cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean
areas. Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern
coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador
current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of
North America (Near Newfoundland). All these factors influence the
temperature of the ocean currents locally.
Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans

• Photic or euphotic zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m.

The photic zone receives adequate solar insolation.
• Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone
does not receive adequate sunrays.
Thermocline

• The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of

the ocean and the deeper layers.
• The boundary usually begins around 100 – 400 m below the sea
surface and extends several hundred of meters downward.
• This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of
temperature, is called the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total
volume of water is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In
this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
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 General behavior
• In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures are close
to 0° C and so the temperature change with the depth is very slight (ice is a
very bad conductor of heat). Here, only one layer of cold water exists, which
extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with depths is greater at the equator
than at the poles.
• The surface temperature and its downward decrease is influenced by the
upwelling of bottom water (Near Peruvian coast during normal years).
• In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions, sinking of cold water and its movement
towards lower latitudes is observed.
• In equatorial regions the surface, water sometimes exhibits lower
temperature and salinity due to high rainfall, whereas the layers below it
have higher temperatures.
• The enclosed seas in both the lower and higher latitudes record higher
temperatures at the bottom.
• The enclosed seas of low latitudes like the Sargasso Sea, the Red
.Sea and the Mediterranean Sea have high bottom temperatures due to
high insolation throughout the year and lesser mixing of the warm and
cold’ waters.
• In the case of the high latitude enclosed seas, the bottom layers of
water are warmer as water of slightly higher salinity and temperature
moves from outer ocean as a sub-surface current.
• The presence of submarine barriers may lead to different temperature
conditions on the two sides of the barrier. For example, at the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb, the submarine barrier (sill) has a height of about 366
m. The subsurface water in the strait is at high temperature compared
to water at same level in Indian ocean. The temperature difference is
greater than nearly 20° C.
Horizontal Temperature Distribution of Oceans
• The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it
gradually decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per
latitude.
• The horizontal temperature distribution is shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines
joining places of equal temperature.
• Isotherms are closely spaced when the temperature difference is high and vice
versa.
• For example, in February, isothermal lines are closely spaced in the south of
Newfoundland, near the west coast of Europe and North Sea and then isotherms
widen out to make; a bulge towards north near the coast of Norway. The cause of
this phenomenon lies in the cold Labrador Current flowing southward along the
north American coast which reduces the temperature of the region more sharply
than in other places in the same latitude; at the same time the warm Gulf Stream
proceeds towards the western coast of Europe and raises the temperature of the
west coast of Europe
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Ocean Salinity: Vertical & Horizontal Distribution
of Ocean Salinity

Ocean Salinity
• Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts
in sea water.
• It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1
kg) of seawater.
• It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt.
• Salinity of 24.7 (24.7 o/oo) has been considered as the upper limit to
demarcate ‘brackish water
Role of Ocean Salinity

• Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature,

density, absorption of insolation, evaporation and humidity.
• It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water
and the distribution of fish and other marine resources.
Share of different salts is as shown below

• sodium chloride — 77.7%

• magnesium chloride—10.9%
• magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
• calcium sulphate — 3.6%
• potassium sulphate — 2.5%
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Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity

• The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly

on evaporation and precipitation.
• Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water
flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and
thawing of ice.
• Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other
areas.
• The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations.
• Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any
change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of an area.
Horizontal distribution of salinity

• To make life easier, I will remove the symbol o/oo and place only
number
• The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 and 37.
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High salinity regions

• In the land locked Red Sea (don’t confuse this to Dead Sea which has
much greater salinity), it is as high as 41.
• In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity
sometimes reaches to 70.
Comparatively Low salinity regions

• In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where fresh and saline

water get mixed) and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 – 35,
seasonally (fresh water coming from ice caps)
Pacific

• The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape
and larger areal extent
Atlantic

• The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36-37.

• The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean has a salinity of about 35.
• Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity,
cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums.
• The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large
amounts of fresh water from the melting of ice. This leads to low
levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32.
• Maximum salinity (37) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20°
W – 60° W. It gradually decreases towards the north.
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Indian Ocean

• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35.

• The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of
river water by the river Ganga.
• On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high
evaporation and low influx of fresh water.
Marginal seas

• The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records

higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North Atlantic
Drift.
• Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large
quantity.
• The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high
evaporation.
• Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh
water influx by rivers.
Inland seas and lakes

• The salinity of the inland Seas and lakes is very high because of the
regular supply of salt by ‘ the rivers falling into them.
• Their water becomes progressively more saline due to evaporation.
• For instance, the salinity of the Great Salt Lake , (Utah, USA),
the Dead Sea and the Lake Van in Turkey is 220, 240 and 330
respectively.
• The oceans and salt lakes are becoming more salty as time goes on
because the rivers dump more salt into them, while fresh water is lost
due to evaporation
 Cold and warm water mixing zones
• Salinity decreases from 35 – 31 on the western parts of the northern
hemisphere because of the influx of melted water from the Arctic
region.
Sub-Surface Salinity

• With depth, the salinity also varies, but this variation again is subject
to latitudinal difference. The decrease is also influenced by cold and
warm currents.
• In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle latitudes,
it increases up to 35 metres and then it decreases. At the
equator, surface salinity is lower.
 Vertical Distribution of Salinity
• Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the
location of the sea.
• Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or
decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
• Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is
‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity
between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
• The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
• Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases
sharply.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its
density to increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower
salinity water. This leads to stratification by salinity.
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Movements of Ocean Water

• You all know that ocean water is never still. There are different types
of movements of ocean water under the influence of different
physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density, etc.
Movements of ocean water are also affected by external forces like
the sun, moon, and winds.
Motion of Ocean water can be classified in two
direction –
• HORIZONTAL
• VERTICAL
Horizontal movements of the ocean
waters can be classified into two
• WAVES
• CURRENTS

❖Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and

water. Rotation of earth, Coriolis force and differences in water level
gradient also play a major role.
Vertical movements of the ocean waters can be
classified into two –
• TIDES
• UPWELLING
Ocean Waves

• Wave is a rhythmic movement that carries energy through matter or

space.
• Ocean Waves are the undulatory motion of a water surface.
• Waves are formed due to friction between wind and surface water
layer. The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave. They die out quickly
on reaching the shore or shallow waters.
.
• Waves are nothing but the oscillatory movements that result in the rise
and fall of the water surface.
• Waves are a kind of horizontal movement of ocean water.
• They are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across
the ocean surface.
• This energy for the waves is provided by the wind.
• In a wave, the movement of each water particle is in a circular manner.
• A wave has two major parts: the raised part is called the crest while
the low-point is called the trough.
•
.
.
.
Most of the waves present on the ocean’s
surface are wind-generated waves.
• Friction from the wind moving over the water causes the water to
move along with the wind. If the wind speed is high enough, the
water begins to pile up and a wave is formed.
As wind velocity increases: Wavelength, Wave period, Height
Increase.
.
.
• Water molecules move in an orbital motion as the wave passes.
• Particles of water move around in circles. The farther below the
surface, the smaller the circle.
• The diameter of the orbit: increases with increasing wave size.
The diameter of the orbit: decreases with depth below the water
surface.
• As the wave slows, its crest and trough come closer together. The
top of the wave is not slowed by friction and moves faster than the
bottom.
.
.
Ocean Currents

• Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent

a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction.
• Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and
water. Rotation of earth, Coriolis force and differences in water level
gradient also play a major role.
• Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences caused by
temperature and salinity changes
Ocean currents are influenced by two types
of forces namely:
[Link] forces that initiate the movement of water;
[Link] forces that influence the currents to flow.
The primary forces that influence the
currents are
[Link] by solar energy;
[Link];
[Link];
[Link] force.
The secondary forces that influence the
currents are:
[Link] difference;
[Link] difference
Influence of insolation
• Heating by solar energy causes the water to expand. That is why, near
the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the
middle latitudes.
• This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the
slope.
Influence of wind (atmospheric circulation)
• Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move.
Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the
movement of the water body in its course.
• Winds are responsible for both magnitude and direction [Coriolis force
also affects direction] of the ocean currents. Example: Monsoon
winds are responsible for the seasonal reversal of ocean currents in
the Indian ocean.
• The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth’s
atmospheric circulation pattern.
.
• The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
anticyclonic [Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt] (more pronounced in
the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere due to
differences in the extent of landmass). The oceanic circulation pattern
also corresponds with the same.
• At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic [Sub-polar
Low Pressure Belt], the oceanic circulation follows this pattern.
• In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow [Northern Indian Ocean],
the monsoon winds influence the current movements which change
directions according to seasons.
Influence of gravity

• Gravity tends to pull the water down to pile and create gradient
variation.
Influence of Coriolis force

• The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to

the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.
• These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are
called Gyres. These produce large circular currents in all the ocean
basins. One such circular current is the Sargasso Sea.
Secondary Forces Responsible For Ocean
Currents
• Temperature difference and salinity difference are the secondary forces.
• Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents
(vertical currents).
• Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the
same way cold water is denser than warm water.
• Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
• Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks
and slowly moves towards the equator.
• Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface,
flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking cold water
 Types of Ocean Currents
❖Based on depth
❖Based on temperature
Based on depth

• The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface

currents and deep water currents:
[Link] currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the
ocean, these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
[Link] water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean
water. These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations
in the density and gravity.
• Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where
the temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.
Based on temperature

• Ocean currents are classified based on temperature: as cold

currents and warm currents:
[Link] currents bring cold water into warm water areas [from high latitudes
to low latitudes]. These currents are usually found on the west coast of the
continents (currents flow in clockwise direction in northern hemisphere
and in anti-clockwise direction in southern hemisphere) in the low and
middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the
higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere;
[Link] currents bring warm water into cold water areas[low to high
latitudes] and are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the
low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern
hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high
latitudes
General Characteristics of Ocean Currents

• Characteristics of Ocean Currents arise due to the interplay of the

above-mentioned factors.
• The general movement of the currents in the northern hemisphere
is clockwise and in the southern hemisphere, anti-clockwise.
• This is due to the Coriolis force which is a deflective force and
follows Ferrel’s law.
• A notable exception to this trend is seen in the northern part of the
Indian Ocean where the current movement changes its direction in
response to the seasonal change in the direction of monsoon winds.
.
The warm currents move towards the cold seas
and cool currents towards the warm seas.
• In the lower latitudes, the warm currents flow on the eastern
shores and cold on the western shores [food for imagination].
• The situation is reversed in the higher latitudes. The warm currents
move along the western shores and the cold currents along the
eastern shores.
• Convergence: warm and cold currents meet.
• Divergence: a single current splits into multiple currents flowing in
different directions.
The shape and position of coasts play an important
role in guiding the direction of currents.
• The currents flow not only at the surface but also below the sea
surface (due to salinity and temperature difference).
• For instance, heavy surface water of the Mediterranean Sea sinks and
flows westward past Gibraltar as a sub-surface current.
Ocean currents are gyres in Ocean
• Any large system of rotating ocean current, particularly those involved with large
wind movements is called a Gyre.
• : In general, currents in the northern hemisphere travel in the clockwise direction in
a gyre, while currents in the southern hemisphere travel in the anti-clockwise
direction ( the only exception is the current direction in the Indian ocean, which
changes seasonally.)
• The ocean current movement in the north-Atlantic gyre, as well as north-Pacific
gyre, is clockwise, while the gyres in the Southern hemisphere are anti-clockwise.
• Current temperature: In general, currents in the western part of every continent
are cold (the exceptions are mentioned in the article on movements of the ocean
water).
• Currents coming from the polar region are generally cold.
• Currents near to equator are generally warm.
• There is a counter-equatorial current, which moves from west to east (warm).
• The west-wind drift moves from west to east (cold)
North Equatorial Current

• It is a significant Pacific and Atlantic Ocean current that flows

from east to west.
• They flow in between 100 north and 200 north latitudes.
• Despite its name, the North Equatorial Current is not connected
to the equator.
• In both oceans, it is separated from the equatorial circulation by
the equatorial countercurrent, which flows eastward.
•
South Equatorial Current

• It is a significant ocean current in the Pacific, Atlantic and the

Indian Ocean that flows from east to west.
• They flow in between the equator and about 200 south.
• In the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, it extends across the equator
to about 50 north.
•
Equatorial Counter Current

• It is an eastward flowing current found in the Atlantic, Indian

and Pacific Oceans.
• It is found in between the North Equatorial and South Equatorial
Currents at about 3-100 northern latitudes.
• This counter-current replaces the water removed from the
eastern side of the ocean by the North Equatorial and South
Equatorial Currents.
• In the Indian Ocean, the current tends to reverse hemispheres
seasonally due to the impact of reversing Asian monsoons.
Formation of Counter Equatorial current
• Western Intensification
• Gravity
• Lack of winds in Doldrums
Antarctic Circumpolar Current or West Wind
Drift
• It is an ocean current that flows from west to east around
Antarctica.
• The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass
connecting with Antarctica and thus keeps warm ocean waters
away from Antarctica.
• The Antarctic Convergence is associated with this current. It is
the region where the cold Antarctic waters meet the water of
the Sub-Antarctic, creating a zone of upwelling (a zone of very
high marine productivity)
.
 Gyres of Ocean Currents in each of the major
Oceans
• The major loops are seen in
the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean and the Indian Ocean
in both the hemispheres.
• Each of the currents follows
more or less a definite
pattern.
• But the currents in the
Indian Ocean (Northern
Hemisphere) change the
flow direction between
summer and winter.
.

South Atlantic South Pacific

drift Current
Currents of the Atlantic Ocean

• To the north and south of the equator, there are two westward-
moving currents, i.e., the North and the South Equatorial
Currents.
• Between these two, there is the counter-equatorial current
which moves from west to east.
ATLANTIC OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
• The South Equatorial Current bifurcates into two branches near the
Cape De Sao Roque in Brazil and its northern branch joins the North
Equatorial Current.
• A part of this combined current enters the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf
of Mexico, while the remaining current passes along the eastern side of
the West Indies as the Antilles Current.
• The part of the current which enters the Gulf of Mexico comes out from
the Florida Strait and joins the Antilles Current.
• This combined current moves along the south-eastern coast of the
U.S.A. and is known as the Florida Current up to Cape Hatteras.
• Beyond Cape Hatteras, it is known as the Gulf Stream.
• The Gulf Stream starts when it exits the Florida Strait and follows North
America northward to Newfoundland.
.
.
• A cold current from the Arctic Ocean called Labrador Current,
which flows along the eastern coast of Canada,
. Stream near the northeast corner of the U.S.A. meets the warm
Gulf
• The confluence of these two currents, one cold and the other
warm, produce fog around the region and makes it the most
important fishing ground in the world.
• The Gulf Stream then deflected eastward under the combined
influence of the westerlies and the rotation of the earth.
• It then crosses the Atlantic Ocean as the warm North Atlantic
Drift.
• In this journey, another cold current from the Arctic called the East
Greenland Current joins with the North Atlantic Drift.
• The North Atlantic Drift bifurcates into two branches on reaching
the eastern part of the ocean.
.
• The northern branch continues as North Atlantic Drift; reaches
the British Isles from where it flows along the coast of Norway
as the warm Norwegian Current and enters the Arctic Ocean.
• The southern branch flows between Spain and Azores Island as
the cold Canaries Current.
• The Canaries Current finally joins the North Equatorial Current
and completes the circuit.
ATLANTIC OCEAN: SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
.
• The South Equatorial Current turns south and flows along the eastern coast
of South America as Brazil Current.
.
• At about 350 south latitude, due to the influence of westerlies and the
rotation of the earth, the current moves eastward.
• A cold current called the Falkland Current which flows along the south-
eastern coast of South America from south to north joins with the current at
this time.
• The Brazil Current moves eastward and crosses the Atlantic Ocean as South
Atlantic Current.
• A part of the west wind drift or the Antarctic Circumpolar Current merges
with the South Atlantic Current while crossing the Atlantic.
• Near the Cape of Good Hope, the South Atlantic Current is diverted
northward as the Cold Benguela Current.
• Benguela Current finally joins with the South Equatorial Current and
completes the circuit.
Currents of the Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

• The North Equatorial Current turns northward and flows along

the Philippines Islands, Taiwan, and Japan to form the
warm Kuro Shio or Kuro Siwo current
• Later, a cold current called Oya Shio or Oya Siwo which flows
along the eastern coast of the Kamchatka Peninsula merges
with the Kuro Shio Current (Okhotsk Current is a cold current
that merges with the Oya Shio before its confluence with Kuro
Shio).
• From the southeast coast of Japan, the Kuro Shio current
comes under the influence of westerlies and flow right across
the ocean as the North Pacific Current.
.• After reaching the west coast of North America, it bifurcates
into two branches: the northern branch flows anti-clockwise
along the coast of Alaska as warm Alaska Current and the
southern branch moves southward along the coast of California
as the cold California Current.
• California Current eventually joins with the North Equatorial
Current and completes the circuit.
PACIFIC OCEAN: SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

South
.• In the South Pacific Ocean, the South Equatorial Current flows
towards the west and turns southward as the East Australian
Current.
• From Tasmania, it flows as the cold South Pacific Current from west
to east and crosses the Pacific Ocean along with the West Wind
Drift.
• On reaching the south-western coast of South America, it turns
northward and flows as the cold Peru Current or Humbolt Current.
• The cold waters of the Peru Current are partially responsible for
making the coast of northern Chile and western Peru with very
scanty rainfall.
• Peru Current eventually joins with the South Equatorial Current and
completes the circuit.
 .
Guano is a
substance made
up of the
excrement and
remains of birds,
bats, and seals
that is used as a
fertilizer
Currents of the Indian Ocean

• The pattern of circulation of ocean currents in the Indian Ocean

differs from the general pattern of circulation in the Atlantic and
the Pacific Oceans.
• This is because the Indian Ocean is blocked by the continental
masses in the north.
• The general pattern of circulation in the southern hemisphere of
the Indian Ocean is anti-clockwise as that of the other oceans.
• In the northern hemisphere, there is a clear reversal of currents
in the winter and summer seasons, which are completely under
the influence of the seasonal changes of monsoon winds.
INDIAN OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
DURING WINTER
•. During winter, Sri Lanka divides the currents of the Arabian Sea
from those of the Bay of Bengal.
• The North-East Monsoon Drift flows westward just south of Sri
Lanka with a countercurrent flow between it and the South
Equatorial Current.
• During the winter season, in the northern section, the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea are under the influence of North
East Monsoon Winds.
• These North East Monsoon winds drive the waters of the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea westward to circulate in an anti-
clockwise direction.
INDIAN OCEAN: NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
DURING SUMMER

Madagascar current

South Indian current

.
•.
.• In summer, the northern part comes under the influence of the South
West Monsoon.
• It results in an easterly movement of water in the Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea in a clockwise direction.
• This current is called the South West Monsoon Drift.
• In the Indian Ocean, the summer currents are more regular than
those of the winter.
INDIAN OCEAN: SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
• In the southern part, the South Equatorial Current which flows from east to
west is strengthened by its corresponding current of the Pacific Ocean.
• It then turns southward along the coast of Mozambique in Africa.
• A part of this current moving in between the African mainland and
Mozambique is called the warm Mozambique Current.
• After the confluence of these two parts, the current is called Agulhas
Current.
• Agulhas Current merges with the West Wind Drift when it crosses the
Indian Ocean.
• A branch of this merged current flows along the western coast of Australia
as the cold West Australian Current.
• It later joins with the South Equatorial Current to complete the circuit.
Effects of Ocean Currents
• Ocean currents have a number of direct and indirect influences on
human activities.
1) Desert formation
2) Rains
3) Moderating effect
4) Fishing
5) Drizzle
6) Tropical Cyclone ,Climate
7) Navigation
Desert formation

• Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in west

coast regions of the tropical and subtropical continents.
• There is fog and most of the areas are arid due to desiccating effect
(loss of moisture).
Major hot deserts are located between 20-30
degree latitudes and on the western side of the
continents
• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore
Trade Winds, hence they are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts
of continents between latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S (Question asked
in Previous Mains Exam).
• They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The
next biggest desert is the Great Australian Desert. The other hot
deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari
and Namib Deserts.
.• The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High
Pressure Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favorable
for precipitation of any kind to take place.
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that
are on-shore blow outside the desert limits.
• Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer
regions, and their relative humidity is lowered, making condensation
almost impossible
.• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative
humidity is extremely low, decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts
to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under such conditions,
every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of
permanent drought. Precipitation is both scarce and most unreliable.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists
and fogs by chilling the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by contact
with the hot land, and little rain falls.
• The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast
is so pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is
not more than 1.3 cm.
.
.
Rains

• Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors.
Example: Summer Rainfall in British Type climate.
• Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in
tropical and subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and rainy
climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical
anti-cyclones.
Moderating effect

• They are responsible for moderate temperatures at coasts. [North

Atlantic Drift brings warmness to England. Canary cold current brings
cooling effect to Spain, Portugal etc.]
Fishing

• Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents bear richest fishing grounds
in the world.
• Example: Grand Banks around Newfoundland, Canada and North-
Eastern Coast of Japan.
• The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen
and favor the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish
population. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in
these mixing zones.
Drizzle

• Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents create foggy weather where
precipitation occurs in the form of drizzle [Newfoundland].
Climate
• Warm and rainy climates in tropical and subtropical latitudes [Florida,
Natal etc.],
• Cold and dry climates on the western margins in the sub-tropics due
to desiccating effect,
• Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing zones,
• Moderate clime along the western costs in the sub-tropics.
Tropical cyclones

• They pile up warm waters in tropics and this warm water is the major
force behind tropical cyclones.
Navigation

• Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Usually, the currents are strongest
near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots (1 knot = ~1.8 km).
[At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots].
• Ships usually follow routes which are aided by ocean currents and winds.
• Example: If a ship wants to travel from Mexico to Philippines, it can use the
route along the North Equatorial Drift which flows from east to west.
• When it wants to travel from Philippines to Mexico, it can follow the route
along the doldrums when there is counter equatorial current [we will study
this in next post] flowing from west to east.
 Ocean Gyres
A gyre is a large system of rotating ocean currents
The horizontal movement of surface water arising from a
balance between the pressure gradient force and the
Coriolis force is known as geostrophic flow.
Vertical movements
• Upwelling
• Tides
Upwellings
• Water that has greater density usually sinks to the bottom.
• However, in the right conditions, this process can be reversed.
• Denser water from the deep ocean can come up to the surface in an upwelling.
• Generally, an upwelling occurs along the coast when wind blows water strongly
away from the shore.
• As the surface water is blown away from the shore, colder water from below
comes up to take its place.
• This is an important process in places like California, South America, South Africa,
and the Arabian Sea because the nutrients brought up from the deep ocean
water support the growth of plankton which, in turn, supports other members in
the ecosystem.
• Upwelling also takes place along the equator between the North and South
Equatorial Currents.
..
Ekman transport
.
.
Tides
• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due
to the attraction of the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
• Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and
atmospheric pressure changes) are called surges (storm surge during
cyclones).
• The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and height.
• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent
the sun’s gravitational pull, are the major causes for the occurrence of
tides.
• Another factor is centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational
pull of earth.
• Tides occur due to a balance between all these forces.
.
.
.
.• Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for
creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth.
• On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the
opposite side though the gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is
farther away, the centrifugal force causes tidal bulge on the other side.
• The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces;
i.e. the gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
• On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon, pull or the attractive force
of the moon is greater than the centrifugal force, and so there is a net force
causing a bulge towards the moon.
• On the opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is farther
away from the moon, the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there is a
net force away from the moon. It creates the second bulge away from the
moon.
Factors Controlling the Nature and Magnitude of
Tides
• The movement of the moon in relation to the earth.
• Changes in position of the sun and moon in relation to the earth.
• Uneven distribution of water over the globe.
• Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans.
• On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide generating forces are more
important than the vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
• The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal
bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
• The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity
of tides.
• Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When the tide is channeled
between islands or into bays and estuaries they are called tidal currents (tidal
bore is one such tidal current).
Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada

• The highest tides in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy

in Nova Scotia, Canada. The tidal bulge is 15 – 16 m.
• Because there are two high tides and two low tides every day (slightly
more than a 24 hour period); then a tide must come in within about a
six hour period.
Types of Tides

• Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to

place and also from time to time.
• Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of
occurrence in one day or 24 hours or based on their height
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth
Positions
The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending
upon the position of sun and moon with respect to the earth. Spring
tides and neap tides come under this category
• Spring tides
• Neap tides
Spring tides

• The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth
has direct bearing on tide height.
• When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the
height of the tide will be higher.
• These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one
on full moon period and another during new moon period.
.
Neap tides

• Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and
neap tides.
• At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and
the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
• The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s,
is diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
• Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.
.
.
Thermohaline Circulation

• Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s surface.
• However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface.
• These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the water’s density,
which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline).
• This process is known as thermohaline circulation.
• The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt,
the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt.
• Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermohaline circulation.
.
•.
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
(AMOC)
• As warm water flows northwards in the Atlantic, it cools, while
evaporation increases its salt content.
• Low temperature and a high salt content raise the density of the
water, causing it to sink deep into the ocean.
• The cold, dense water deep below slowly spreads southward.
• Eventually, it gets pulled back to the surface and warms again, and
the circulation is complete.
.
Importance of Atlantic Meridional Overturning
Circulation (AMOC)
• AMOC aids in distributing heat and energy around the earth (heat
budget).
• Western Europe’s climate is less harsh even in winters because of
AMOC (Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift).
• It acts as a carbon sink by absorbing and storing atmospheric carbon.
• AMOC’s carbon sequestration has significant implications for
evolution of anthropogenic global warming.
Cause of concern

• AMOC has undergone exceptional weakening in the last 150 years

compared to the previous 1500 years.
• Climate models suggest that the AMOC will weaken over the 21st Century
as greenhouse gases increase.
• This is because as the atmosphere warms, the surface ocean beneath it
retains more of its heat.
• Meanwhile increases in rainfall and ice melt mean it gets fresher too.
• All these changes make the ocean water lighter and reduce the sinking in
the conveyor belt (weaker AMOC).
• A weaker AMOC will bring less warm water northwards, and this will partly
offset the warming effect of the greenhouse gases over western Europe
Effects of AMOC Slowdown

• IPCC report indicates that AMOC has already weakened.

• Any substantial weakening of the AMOC would cause
• further decrease in marine productivity in the North Atlantic (less sinking will
lead to less mixing of water),,
• less Sahelian summer rainfall and South Asian summer rainfall,
• a reduced number of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and
• an increase in regional sea level along the northeast coast of North America.
Rising temperatures in Indian Ocean can boost
Atlantic’s ocean currents temporarily
• For thousands of years, AMOC has remained stable, but since the past
15 years, it has been weakening.
• However, rising temperatures in the Indian Ocean can help boost the
AMOC and delay the slow down.
 Indian Ocean’s role
• The Indian Ocean is one of the fingerprints of global warming.
• As the Indian Ocean warms faster and faster, it generates additional precipitation.
• This draws more air from other parts of the world to the Indian Ocean, including the
Atlantic.
• With so much precipitation in the Indian Ocean, there will be less precipitation in the
Atlantic Ocean.
• Less precipitation will lead to higher salinity in the waters of the tropical portion of the
Atlantic.
• This saltier water, as it comes north via AMOC, will get cold much quicker than usual and
sink faster.
• This would act as a jump start for AMOC, intensifying the circulation.
• However, scientists don’t know for how long this enhanced warming in Indian Ocean will
continue.
• If other tropical oceans’ warming, especially the Pacific’s, catches up with the Indian
Ocean, the advantage for AMOC will stop.
 Coral Reef
• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral
“polyps”—that are related to anemones and jellyfish.
• Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by
a calcareous skeleton. The polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to
form these hard skeletons.
• The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky sea floor.
• The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous
rocky mass, collectively called corals.
• When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton [coral] on which new
polyps grow.
• The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of
layers of corals [shallow rock created by these depositions is called reef].
.
• ..
.• These layers at different stages give rise to various marine landforms.
One such important landform is called coral reef.
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral
islands (Lakshadweep).
• The corals occur in different forms and colours, depending upon
the nature of salts or constituents they are made of.
• Small marine plants (algae) also deposit calcium carbonate
contributing to coral growth.
Coral Reef Relief Features

• Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on
atolls) are the most important relief features
Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)

• Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are located
very close to land, and often form a shallow lagoon between the beach
and the main body of the reef.
• A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 km wide]. This type of reef grows
from the deep sea bottom with the seaward side sloping steeply into the
deep sea. Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of sudden and
large increase in depth.
• The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three major types of
coral reefs, with numerous examples in all major regions of coral reef
development.
• Fringing reefs can be seen at the New Hebrides Society islands off Australia
and off the southern coast of Florida.
.
Barrier Reefs
• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef complexes that parallel a shore, and
are separated from it by lagoon.
• This is the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three reefs, runs for
hundreds of kilometres and is several kilometres wide. It extends as a
broken, irregular ring around the coast or an island, running almost parallel
to it.
• Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or atolls, although
examples can be found in the tropical Atlantic as well as the Pacific.
• The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the
world’s largest example of this reef type.
• The GBR is not actually a single reef as the name implies, but rather a very
large complex consisting of many reefs.
.
Atolls

• An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) oceanic reef system

surrounding a large (and often deep) central lagoon.
• Atolls are located at great distances from deep see platforms, where
the submarine features may help in formation of atolls, such as
a submerged island or a volcanic cone which may reach a level
suitable for coral growth
• Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean. Eg:-
Fiji Atoll
• The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples
are found in the Maldives and Chagos island
groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.
.
Development Of Major Coral Reef Types

• The basic coral reef classification scheme described above was first
proposed by Charles Darwin, and is still widely used today.
• Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began to grow near the shorelines of
new islands as ecological conditions became ideal for hard coral growth.
• Then, as the island began to gradually subside into the sea, the coral was
able to keep pace in terms of growth and remained in place at the sea
surface, but farther from shore; it was now a barrier reef.
• Eventually, the island disappeared below the sea surface, leaving only the
ring of coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll had formed.
•
.
[Link] 1: A fringing reef forms first, and starts growing in the shallow
waters close to a tropical island.
[Link] 2: Over time, the island subsides and the reef grows outwards,
and the distance between the land and the reef increases.
The fringing reef develops into a barrier reef.
[Link] 3: If the island completely subsides, all that is left is the reef. The
reef retains the approximate shape of the island it grew around,
forming a ring enclosing a lagoon.
.
Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth

• Stable climatic conditions: Corals are highly susceptible to quick

changes. They grow in regions where climate is significantly stable for
a long period of time.
• Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive in tropical waters [30°N and
30°S latitudes, The temperature of water is around 20°C] where
diurnal and annual temperature ranges are very narrow.
Symbiotic Relationship Between Corals And
Zooxanthellae
• Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within the coral polyp tissues and assist
the coral in nutrient production through its photosynthetic activities.
• These activities provide the coral with fixed carbon compounds for energy,
enhance calcification, and mediate elemental nutrient flux.
• The host coral polyp in return provides its zooxanthellae with a protected
environment to live within, and a steady supply of carbon dioxide for its
photosynthetic processes.
• The symbiotic relationship allows the slow growing corals to compete with
the faster growing multicellular algaes. The corals can feed by day
through photosynthesis and by night through predation.
• The tissues of corals themselves are actually not the beautiful colors of
the coral reef, but are instead clear. The corals receive their coloration
from the ZOOXANTHELLAE living within their tissues
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching

• Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural

events.
• Recent accelerated coral reef decline is related mostly to
anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation, overfishing, increased
sedimentation and nutrient overloading).
• Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs
include violent storms, flooding, high and low temperature
extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, sub aerial
exposures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of
the various disturbances mentioned above.
.
Bleaching occurs when

[Link] densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or

[Link] concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the
zooxanthellae fall. [it is no more useful for the coral and the coral
will bleach it]
.
• When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of their
zooxanthellae and each zooxanthellae may lose 50-80% of its
photosynthetic pigments.
• If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it decreases in
time, the affected corals usually regain their symbiotic algae within
several weeks or a few months.
• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and
depleted zooxanthellae populations do not recover, the coral host
eventually dies .
Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching

• Rising temperatures
• Sub aerial Exposure
• Fresh Water Dilution
• Inorganic Nutrients
• Xenobiotics
• Epizootics
Consequences of global coral bleaching

• Coral reef ecosystems are less than 0.1% of the ocean area but
provide food and shelter to 25% of all marine species.
• They support fish stocks on which some 500 million people are
dependent globally.
• Mass bleaching can turn a coral dominated reef to an algae
dominated one in the space of a few months — a process that can
take decades or longer to reverse