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745 Introduction to Lie Algebras October 12, 2010

Lecture 10 — Trace Form & Cartan’s criterion

Prof. Victor Kac Scribe: Vinoth Nandakumar

Definition 10.1. Let g be a Lie algebra and π a representation of g on a finite dimensional vector
space V . The associated trace form is a bilinear form on g, given by the following formula:
(a, b)V = tr (π(a)π(b))
Proposition 10.1. (i) The trace form is symmetric, i.e. (a, b)V = (b, a)V .
(ii) The trace form is invariant, i.e. ([a, b], c)V = (a, [b, c])V .

Proof. (i) follows from the fact that tr (AB) = tr (BA). For (ii), note the following:
([a, b], c)V = tr (π([a, b])π(c)) = tr (π(a)π(b)π(c) − π(b)π(a)π(c))
= tr (π(a)π(b)π(c) − π(a)π(c)π(b)) = tr (π(a)π([b, c]))
= (a, [b, c])V

Definition 10.2. If dim g < ∞, then the trace form of the adjoint representation is called the
Killing form:
κ(a, b) = tr ((ad a)(ad b))
Exercise 10.1. Let F be a field of characteristic 0. Suppose (·, ·) be an invariant bilinear form on
g. Show that if v ∈ g is such that ad a is nilpotent, then (ead v a, ead v b) = (a, b). In other words,
the bilinear form is invariant with respect to the group G generated by ead v , ad v nilpotent.

Proof.
1 1
(ead v a, ead v b) = (a + (ad v)a + (ad v)2 + · · · , b + (ad v)b + (ad v)2 b + · · · )
2! 2!
X X 1
j k
= (a, b) + ((ad v) a, (ad v) b)
j!k!
i≥1 j+k=i

1
v)j a, (ad v)k b) = 0. Note the following:
P
Thus it suffices to prove that for i ≥ 1, j+k=i j!k! ((ad

((ad v)j a, (ad v)k b) = ((ad v)(ad v)j−1 a, (ad v)k b) = −((ad v)j−1 a, (ad v)k+1 b)

Here we have used the invariance of (·, ·). So this means ((ad v)i a, b) = −((ad v)i−1 , (ad v)b) =
((ad v)i−2 , (ad v)2 b) = · · · . So:

X 1 X 1 1 X i!
((ad v)j a, (ad v)k b) = (−1)k ((ad v)i a, b) = ((ad v)i a, b) (−1)k =0
j!k! j!k! i! j!k!
j+k=i j+k=i

Pi k i


Above we have used the fact that k=0 (−1) k = 0.

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Exercise 10.2. Show that the trace form of gln (F) and sln (F) associated to the standard represen-
tation is non-degenerate and the Killing form on sln (F) is also non-degenerate, provided char F - 2n.
Find the kernel of the Killing form on gln (F).

Proof.
P To show the trace form on gln (F) for the standard representation
P is non-degenerate, if
i,j aij eij lies in the kernel where for some r, s, ars 6= 0, then tr(( i,j aij eij )esr ) = tr(ars ers esr ) =
ars 6= 0 since tr(ei,j es,r ) = 0 unless j = s, i = r, which is a contradiction.
P To show the trace form
on sln (F) for the standard representation is non-degenerate, if x = i,j aij eij lies in the kernel
and some P ars 6= 0, then by the same argument we have P a contradiction. So say ars = 0 for r 6= s,
so x = aii eii . If ajj 6= akk for some j, k, then tr( aii eii , ejj − ekk ) = ajj − ak 6= 0, which is a
contradiction. So ajj = akk ∀j, k, so trx = na11 = 0, so a11 = 0 ( since char F - n, and x = 0 ).
For the killing form on gln (F), consider the basis of gln (F), {eij }. Then:

ad eij ad ekl (egh ) = [eij , δlg ekl − δlk egl ] = δjk δlg ekh − δki δlg ekj − δjg δhk eil + δli δhk egj

The coefficient of egh in this expansion is agh = δgi δjk δlg − δjk δhg δhi δlg − δgi δlh δjg δhk + δhj δli δhk .
So:

X X
κgln (eij ekl ) = agh = (δgi δjk δlg − δgk δhg δhi δlg − δgl δkl δjg δhk + δhj δli δhk )
g,h g,h

= nδil δjk − δkl δij − δij δkl + nδjk δil = 2nδil δjk − 2δij δkl = 2ntr(eij ekl ) − 2tr(eij )tr(ekl )

P κgln (x, y) = 2ntr(xy) − 2tr(x)tr(y)

It follows that P by bilinearity. To calculate the radical of κgln ,
note if x = Pi,j xi,j ei,j , κgln (x, ekl ) = 2nxlk − 2( xii )δkl . If this is always 0, xlk = 0 when k 6= l,
and nxkk = i xii , so x = λI for some λ (since charF - 2n). So the radical of κgln is FI. By a
theorem from Lecture 11, since sln (F) is an ideal of gln (F), κsln is the restriction of κgln to sln (F);
hence κsln (x, y) = 2ntr(x)tr(y). Since it is a scalar multiple of the trace form of the standard
representation, which is non-degenerate, it follows that the radical of κsln is trivial.

Lemma 10.2 (Cartan). Let g be a finite dimensional Lie algebra over F = F, a field of character-
istic 0 (so that Q ⊂ F). Let π be a representation of g in a finite dimensional vector space V . Let
h be a Cartan sub-algebra of g, and consider the generalized weight space decomposition of V and
the generalized root space decomposition of g with respect to h:
M M
V = Vλ , g = gα , π (gα ) Vλ ⊆ Vλ+α , [gα , gβ ] ⊆ gα+β
λ∈h∗ α∈h∗

Pick e ∈ gα , f ∈ g−α , so that h = [e, f ] ∈ g0 = h. Suppose that Vλ 6= 0. Then λ(h) = rα(h), where
r ∈ Q depends only on λ and α but not on h.
L
Proof. Let U = n∈Z Vλ+nα ⊂ V . Then dimU < ∞, and U is π(e), π(f ) and π(h) invariant. But
[π(e), π(f )] = π(h), hence trU (π(h)) = 0. Thus we have the following:
X X
0 = trU (π(h)) = trVλ+nα (π(h)) = (λ + nα)(h)dim Vλ+nα
n n

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In the last line we have used the fact that the matrix of π(h)|Vλ+nα takes the following form:
 
(λ + nα)(h) ∗
 (λ + nα)(h) ∗ 
A=
 
.. 
 . 
(λ + nα)(h)

X X
=⇒ λ(h)( dim Vλ+nα ) = −α(h) n dim Vλ+nα
n
P n
n dim Vλ+nα
=⇒ λ(h) = rα(h), r = − Pn
n dim Vλ+nα

P
Note in the above that Vλ 6= 0, so n dim Vλ+nα 6= 0.

Theorem 10.3 (Cartan’s criterion). Let g be a subalgebra of gl(V ), where V is a finite dimensional
vector space over F = F, a field of characteristic 0. Then the following are equivalent:

1. (g, [g, g]) = 0, i.e. (a, b)V = 0 for a ∈ g, b ∈ [g, g].

2. (a, a)V = 0 for all a ∈ [g, g].

3. g is solvable.

Proof. (i) =⇒ (ii): Obvious.

(iii) =⇒ (i): By Lie’s theorem, in some basis of V , all matrices of g are upper triangular, and
thus [g, g] is strictly upper triangular. Thus π(ab) is strictly upper triangular and (a, b)V = 0 if
a ∈ g, b ∈ [g, g].
(ii) =⇒ (iii): Suppose not. Then the derived series of g stabilizes, so suppose [g(k) , g(k) ] = g( k)
for some k with g(k) 6= 0. Then (a, a)V = 0 for a ∈ g(k) and [g(k) , g(k) ] = g(k) . We reach the desired
contradiction using the following Lemma.

Lemma 10.4. If g ⊂ glV , such that [g, g] = g, then (a, a)V 6= 0 for some a ∈ g.

Proof. Proof by contradiction. Choose a Cartan subalgebra h ⊂ g, and let:

M M
V = Vλ , g = gα
λ∈h∗ α∈h∗

P
Since [g, g] = g, and [gα , gβ ] ⊂ gα+β , we obtain that h = α∈h∗ [gα , g−α ]. Hence by Cartan’s Lemma
λ(h) = rλ,α α(h) for rλ,α ∈ Q, 6= 0 if Vλ 6= 0. The assumption that (a, a)V = 0 means that, for all
h ∈ [gα , g−α ]:

X X X
0 = (h, h)V = trV (π(h)2 ) = trVλ (π(h)2 ) = λ(h)2 dim Vλ = α(h)2 2
rλ,α dim Vλ
λ∈h∗ λ∈h∗ λ

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In the above, we have used the fact that trVλ (π(h)2 ) = λ(h)2 dim Vλ , which follows from the Jordan
form theorem, since π(h)|Vλ can be expressed as an upper triangular matrix with λ(h)-s on the
Pfollows from this calculation that α(h) = 0, and hence λ(h) = 0 for all h ∈ [gα , g−α ].
diagonal. It
Since h = α∈h∗ [gα , g−α ], it follows that λ(h) = 0 for all h ∈ h. Since λ ∈ h∗ was arbitrary, this
means V = V0 .
Since π(gα )V = π(gα )V0 ⊂ Vα = 0 for α 6= 0, it follows that gα = 0 for α 6= 0. Hence g = g0 , and g
is nilpotent. This contradicts the fact that [g, g] = g.

Corollary 10.5. A finite dimensional Lie algebra g over F = F is solvable iff κ(g, [g, g]) = 0.

Proof. Consider the adjoint representation g → gl(g). Its kernel is Z(g). So g is solvable iff
adg ⊂ gl(g) is a solvable. But by Cartan’s criterion, adg is solvable iff κ(g, [g, g]) = 0.

Exercise 10.3. Consider the following 4-dim solvable Lie algebra D = Heis3 + Fd, where Heis3 =
Fp + Fq + Fc, with the relations [d, p] = p, [d, q] = −q, [d, c] = 0. Define on D the bilinear form
(p, q) = (c, d) = 1, rest = 0. Show that this is a non-degenerate symmetric invariant bilinear form,
but (D, [D, D]) 6= 0, so Cartan’s criterion fails for this bilinear form.

Proof. It is symmetric by construction. It is nondegenerate since if a1 p + a2 q + a3 c + a4 d lies in the

kernel, taking the bilinear form with q, p, d, c respectively gives a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 0. Cartan’s
criterion fails since (p, q) 6= 0 and p ∈ D, q ∈ [D, D]. To check that it is invariant:

B([a1 p + a2 q + a3 c + a4 d,b1 p + b2 q + b3 c + b4 d], c1 p + c2 q + c3 c + c4 d)

= B((a1 b2 − a2 b1 )c + (a4 b1 − a1 b4 )p + (a2 b4 − a4 b2 )q, c1 p + c2 q + c3 c + c4 d)
= −(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )c4 + (a4 b1 − a1 b4 )c1 + (a2 b4 − a4 b2 )c1
B(a1 p + a2 q + a3 c + a4 d,[b1 p + b2 q + b3 c + b4 d, c1 p + c2 q + c3 c + c4 d])
= B(a1 p + a2 q + a3 c + a4 d, (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )c + (b4 c1 − b1 c4 )p + (b2 c4 − b4 c2 )q)
= a1 (b2 c4 − b4 c2 ) + a2 (b4 c1 − b1 c4 ) + a4 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )

By comparision, it is clear B([r, s], t) = B(r, [s, t]) for r = a1 p + a2 q + a3 c + a4 d, s = b1 p + b2 q +

b3 c + b4 d, t = c1 p + c2 q + c3 c + c4 d, so B is invariant, as required.

Remark. Very often one can remove the condition F = F by the following trick. Let F ⊂ F be the
algebraic closure. Given a Lie algebra g over F, let g = F ⊗F g be a Lie algebra over F.

Exercise 10.4. 1. g is solvable (resp. nilpotent) iff g is.

2. Derive Cartan’s criterion and Corollary for char F = 0 but not F = F.

3. Show that [g, g] = g is nilpotent iff g is solvable when char F = 0

4. ga0 is a Cartan sub-algebra for every regular element of a ∈ g for any field F.

Proof. By construction of g, if we pick a basis a1 , ..., an of g, so that g = Fa1 + · · · + Fan , then

g = Fa1 + · · · + Fan with the same bracket relations holding.

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1. Note [g, g] = [g, g]. To see this, [g, g] is the F-span of [ai , aj ] with certain linear relations
holding between them, so both [g, g] and [g, g] are the F-span of [ai , aj ] with certain linear
relations holding between them; and the Lie algebra structure is the same. Iterating this, we
have g(i) = g(i) . So g is solvable ↔ ∃i, g(i) = 0 ↔ ∃i, g(i) = 0 ↔ g is solvable. A similar
argument shows that [g, [g, g]] = [g, [g, g]], and more generally, gi = g i . So g is nilpotent
↔ ∃i, gi = 0 ↔ ∃i, g i = 0 ↔ g is nilpotent.

2. In Cartan’s Criterion, note that the second condition (a, a)V = 0∀a ∈ [g, g] is equivalent
to the condition (a, b)V = 0∀a, b ∈ [g, g], since (·, ·)V is symmetric (to see this, expand
(a + b, a + b)V = 0 and note it is characteristic 0). Thus by Cartan’s criterion, we have
(g, [g, g])V = 0 ↔ (g, [g, g])V = 0 ↔ (a, b)V = 0∀a, b ∈ [g, g] ↔ (a, b)V = 0∀a, b ∈ [g, g]. So the
first two conditions of Cartan’s criterion are equivalent for charF = 0. By Cartan’s criterion,
(a, b)V = 0∀a, b ∈ [g, g] ↔ (a, b)V = 0∀a, b ∈ [g, g] ↔ g is solvable ↔ g is solvable, so the
last two conditions of Cartan’s criterion are equivalent for charF = 0. For the Corollary, g is
solvable ↔ g is solvable ↔ κ(g, [g, g]) = 0 ↔ κ(g, [g, g]) = 0, so the Corollary is true for all
charF = 0.

3. This was proven in a previous exercise when F = F. So g is solvable → g is solvable → [g, g]

is nilpotent → [g, g] is nilpotent.

4. a is a regular element of g =⇒ a is a regular element of g (since the discriminant of a is same

in both g and g). Hence ga0 is a Cartan sub-algebra of g, and hence ga0 is a Cartan sub-algebra
of g. To see the last step, a sub-algebra is Cartan iff it is nilpotent and self-normalizing, and
ga0 = g a0 , so since ga0 is nilpotent, ga0 is nilpotent, and Ng (g a0 ) = ga0 → Ng (ga0 ) = ga0 .